Retinal glia / Andreas Reichenbach, Andreas Bringmann.

Format:

Book

Author/Creator:

Reichenbach, Andreas, 1950- author.

Bringmann, Andreas, author.

Series:

Colloquium digital library of life sciences.

Colloquium series on neuroglia in biology and medicine ; 2375-9917 # 3.

Colloquium series on neuroglia in biology and medicine, 2375-9917 ; # 3

Language:

English

Subjects (All):

Astrocytes.

Retina--Physiology.

Retina.

Retina--physiology.

Medical Subjects:

Astrocytes.

Retina--physiology.

Physical Description:

1 online resource (666 p.)

Place of Publication:

San Rafael, California (1537 Fourth Street, San Rafael, CA 94901 USA) : Morgan & Claypool, 2015.

Language Note:

English

Summary:

In 1851, Heinrich Müller discovered what he called "radial fibers" and what we now call Müller cells, as the principal glial cells of the vertebrate retina. Later on, other glial cell types were found in the retina, including astrocytes, microglia, and even oligodendrocytes. It turned out that retinal glial cells are essential constituents of the tissue. For instance, Müller cells appear to constitute the "core" of columnar units of clonally and functionally related groups of neurons. Their primary function is to support neuronal functioning by guiding the light towards the photoreceptor cells, removing excess neurotransmitter molecules from extracellular space, and performing efficient clearance of excess extracellular potassium ions. The latter two functions are also crucial for neuronal survival and are coupled to water clearance which is also essential. Müller cells are capable of "sensing" neuronal activity and modifying it by the release of signal substances (gliotransmitters). In cases of retinal injuries the Müller cells become reactive, and all above-mentioned functions are impaired. However, such de-differentiated Müller cells may proliferate, and may even serve as stem cells for the regeneration of a damaged retina. As well as the Müller cells, retinal astrocytes and microglial cells are important players in retinal development and function. This book gives a comprehensive survey of the present knowledge on retinal glia.

Contents:

1. Retinal structure

2. Retinal astrocytes and blood vessels

2.1 Retinal vasculature

2.2 Development of retinal vasculature

2.3 Astrocytic functions in the normal retina

2.4 Astrocytes in the aging retina

2.5 Astrocytes in the diseased retina

2.5.1 Glaucoma

2.5.2 Diabetic retinopathy

2.5.3 Retinal neovascularization

2.5.4 Bacterial and viral infections

2.5.5 Neuroprotective effects of astrogliosis

3. Retinal microglia

3.1 Microglia precursors

3.2 Resting microglia

3.3 Microglia activation

3.3.1 Trigger of microglia activation

3.3.2 Characteristics of activated microglia

3.4 Migration of microglia

3.5 Microglial contribution to neuronal degeneration

3.6 Microglial contribution to neuronal survival

3.7 Suppression of microglia activation

3.8 Microglia in the aging retina

4. Retinal oligodendroglia

4.1 Development of optic nerve and retinal myelination

4.2 Oligodendroglia in optic nerve injury

5. Müller cells

5.1 Morphology of Müller cells

5.2 Ultrastructure of Müller cells

5.3 Müller cells as cores of retinal columns

5.4 Light guidance through Müller cells

5.4.1 Light scattering in the retinal tissue

5.4.2 Light-guiding properties of Müller cells

5.5 Homeostatic and metabolic support of retinal neurons

5.5.1 Mechanical tissue homeostasis

5.5.1.1 Mechanical forces in the retinal tissue

5.5.1.2 Viscoelastic properties of Müller cells

5.5.1.3 Increased stiffness of reactive Müller cells

5.5.1.4 Sensing mechanical tissue deformations

5.5.2 Neurotransmitter recycling

5.5.2.1 Glutamate uptake and metabolism

5.5.2.1.1 Functional role of the glial glutamate uptake

5.5.2.1.2 Glial glutamate transporters

5.5.2.1.3 Ion dependency of the glial electrogenic glutamate transport

5.5.2.1.4 Regulation of GLAST

5.5.2.1.5 Glutamate uptake in retinal development

5.5.2.1.6 Glutamate uptake under pathological conditions

5.5.2.1.7 Uptake of ammonia

5.5.2.1.8 Removal of N-acetylaspartylglutamate

5.5.2.1.9 Production of glutamine

5.5.2.1.10 Glutamine transport

5.5.2.1.11 Regulation of glutamine synthetase expression in retinal development

5.5.2.1.12 Regulation of the glutamine synthetase under pathological conditions

5.5.2.1.13 Regulation of glutamine synthetase by soluble factors

5.5.2.1.14 Ammonia-dependent regulation of the glutamine synthetase, hepatic retinopathy

5.5.2.1.15 Production of glutathione

5.5.2.2 GABA uptake and metabolism

5.5.2.2.1 GABA uptake

5.5.2.2.2 GABA release

5.5.2.2.3 Expression of GABA transporters

5.5.2.2.4 GABA metabolism

5.5.2.3 Uptake of glycine and arginine

5.5.2.4 Uptake of dopamine and anandamide

5.5.3 Retinal potassium homeostasis

5.5.3.1 Kir channels

5.5.3.2 Whole-cell kir currents

5.5.3.3 Subcellular distribution of the potassium conductance

5.5.3.4 Increase of kir currents in developing Müller cells

5.5.3.5 Kir currents in gliotic Müller cells

5.5.3.6 BK channels

5.5.3.7 Decrease of the BK channel activity in developing Müller cellS.

5.5.3.8 Whole-cell BK currents

5.5.3.9 KA currents

5.5.3.10 Other types of potassium channels

5.5.4 Retinal water homeostasis

5.5.4.1 Retinal water transport

5.5.4.2 Retinal water channels

5.5.4.3 Glial expression of AQP1

5.5.4.4 Glial expression of AQP4 and AQP6

5.5.4.5 Possible coupling of glial water and potassium transport

5.5.4.6 AQP4-mediated support of synaptic activity

5.5.4.7 AQP4-mediated suppression of retinal inflammation

5.5.5 Müller cell volume regulation

5.5.5.1 Kir4.1-dependent cell volume regulation

5.5.5.2 AQP4-dependent cell volume regulation

5.5.5.3 Receptor-dependent cell volume regulation

5.5.5.3.1 Receptor-dependent cell volume regulation during ontogenetic development

5.5.5.3.2 Receptor-dependent cell volume regulation under pathological conditions

5.5.5.3.3 Involvement of ecto-nucleotidases in cell volume regulation

5.5.5.4 Cell volume regulation by the release of organic osmolytes

5.5.5.5 Müller cell-mediated volume regulation of bipolar cells

5.5.6 Removal of carbon dioxide and regulation of extracellular pH

5.5.7 Metabolic support of photoreceptors and neurons

5.5.7.1 Glucose metabolism

5.5.7.2 Supply of monocarboxylates

5.5.7.3 Glycogen and creatine metabolism

5.5.7.4 Lipid metabolism

5.5.7.5 Metabolism of toxic compounds

5.5.8 Support of photoreceptor function and viability

5.5.8.1 Recycling of photopigments

5.5.8.2 Circadian protection of photoreceptors

5.6 Regulation of neuronal activity by gliotransmitters

5.6.1 Glial release of glutamate

5.6.1.1 Non-vesicular release of glutamate

5.6.1.2 Vesicular release of glutamate

5.6.1.3 Neuronal effects of glial glutamate

5.6.2 Release of D-serine

5.6.3 Glial release of purinergic receptor agonists

5.6.3.1 Release of ATP

5.6.3.2 Release of adenosine

5.6.3.3 Propagation of glial calcium waves by extracellular ATP signaling

5.6.3.4 Neuronal effects of glial ATP and adenosine

5.6.4 Release of ACBP and retinoic acid

5.6.5 Production of NO, carbon monoxide, and hydrogen sulfide

5.7 Glial forward and feedback regulation of the neuronal activity

5.8 Neurovascular coupling

5.9 Further ion channels of Müller cells

5.9.1 Voltage-gated calcium channels

5.9.2 Voltage-gated sodium channels

5.9.3 Epithelial sodium channels

5.9.4 Cation channels

5.9.5 Chloride channels

5.10 Receptor expression by Müller cells

5.10.1 Glutamate receptors

5.10.1.1 iGluRs

5.10.1.2 mGluRs

5.10.2 Purinergic receptors

5.10.2.1 Adenosine receptors

5.10.2.2 Ionotropic P2X receptors

5.10.2.3 Metabotropic P2Y receptors

5.10.2.4 Involvement of purinergic receptors in the ontogenetic development

5.10.2.5 Increase of purinergic calcium responses under pathological conditions

5.10.3 GABA receptors

5.10.4 Glycinergic receptors

5.10.5 Cholinergic receptors

5.10.6 Catecholaminergic receptors

5.10.7 Dopaminergic and histaminergic receptors

5.10.8 VEGF receptors

5.10.9 Thrombin receptors

5.10.10 Further peptidergic receptors

5.10.11 Steroid hormone receptors

5.10.12 Receptors for extracellular matrix components

5.10.13 Other receptors of Müller cells

5.11 Müller cell gliosis

5.11.1 The "Janus face" of Müller cell gliosis

5.11.1.1 Protective effects of Müller cell gliosis

5.11.1.2 Detrimental effects of Müller cell gliosis

5.11.2 Characteristics of Müller cell gliosis

5.11.2.1 Unspecific and specific Müller cell responses

5.11.2.2 Heterogeneity of Müller cell responses

5.11.2.3 "Conservative" and massive gliosis

5.11.2.4 Resistance and susceptibility of Müller cells to pathogenic stimuli

5.11.2.5 Primary Müller cell injuries

5.11.2.6 Glial scar formation

5.11.2.7 Prevention of retinal regeneration

5.11.2.8 Promotion of retinal remodeling

5.11.3 Upregulation of intermediate filaments

5.11.3.1 Intermediate filaments are crucial for glial scarring

5.11.3.2 Cellular signaling involved in upregulation of intermediate filaments

5.11.3.3 Cellular signaling mediated by intermediate filaments

5.11.4 Network of reactive gliosis

5.11.5 Müller cell-mediated spread of retinal degeneration, retinal detachment

5.11.6 Immunomodulatory role of Müller cells

5.11.6.1 Antigen presentation

5.11.6.2 Müller cell-derived inflammatory and immune response-related factors

5.11.7 Müller cell-derived neuroprotective factors

5.11.7.1 BDNF and neurotrophin-3

5.11.7.2 NGF

5.11.7.3 GDNF and neurturin

5.11.7.4 Osteopontin

5.11.7.5 CNTF

5.11.7.6 Endothelin-2 and LIF

5.11.7.7 bFGF

5.11.7.8 Prostaglandins

5.11.7.9 Other neuroprotective factors

5.11.7.10 Neurotrophic signaling

5.11.8 Glial regulation of retinal neovascularization

5.11.9 Retinal edema

5.11.9.1 Vasogenic edema

5.11.9.1.1 Glial regulation of the blood-retinal barrier

5.11.9.1.2 Impairment of the fluid clearance

5.11.9.2 Cytotoxic edema

5.11.9.2.1 Neuronal cell swelling

5.11.9.2.2 Glial cell swelling

5.11.9.2.3 Mechanisms of osmotic Müller cell swelling

5.11.9.3 Link between vasogenic and cytotoxic edema

5.11.9.4 Resolution of edema

5.11.10 Müller cell proliferation

5.11.10.1 Cellular signaling involved in Müller cell proliferation

5.11.10.2 Membrane conductance of proliferating Müller cells

5.11.10.3 Purinergic stimulation of Müller cell proliferation

5.11.10.4 Growth factor stimulation of Müller cell proliferation

5.11.10.4.1 FGFs

5.11.10.4.2 PDGF

5.11.10.4.3 EGF, HB-EGF

5.11.10.4.4 HGF

5.11.10.5 Other proliferative factors and conditions

5.11.10.6 Antiproliferative factors

5.11.11 Glial cell involvement in epiretinal membrane formation

5.11.11.1 Composition of epiretinal membranes

5.11.11.2 Transdifferentiation to myofibrocytes

5.11.11.3 Pathogenic mechanisms of early epiretinal membrane formation

5.11.11.4. Peeling of epiretinal membranes

5.11.12 Müller stem cells

5.11.12.1 Retinas of cold-blooded vertebrates

5.11.12.2 Avian retina

5.11.12.3 Mammalian retina

5.11.13 Müller cells in therapeutic approaches

References

Author biographies.

Notes:

Part of: Colloquium digital library of life sciences.

Includes bibliographical references (pages 365-644).

Title from PDF title page (viewed on March 19, 2015).

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ISBN:

1-61504-671-2

OCLC:

905243176