Detecting environmental radioactivity M. García-León

Format:

Book

Author/Creator:

García-León, Manuel, author.

Series:

Graduate texts in physics

Language:

English

Subjects (All):

Physics.

physics.

Physical Description:

1 online resource

Place of Publication:

[S.l.] : SPRINGER, 2022.

Cham, Switzerland Springer [2023]

Summary:

This textbook presents the principles and methods for the measurement of radioactivity in the environment. In this regard, specific low-level radiation counting and spectrometry or mass spectrometry techniques are discussed, including sources, distribution, levels and dynamics of radioactivity in nature. The author gives an accurate description of the fundamental concepts and laws of radioactivity as well as the different types of detectors and mass spectrometers needed for detection. Special attention is paid to scintillators, semiconductor detectors, and gas ionization detectors. In order to explain radiochemistry, some concepts about chemical separations are introduced as well. The book is meant for graduate and advanced undergraduate students in physics, chemistry or engineering oriented to environmental sciences, and to other disciplines where monitoring of the environment and its management is of great interest

Contents:

Intro

Preface

Contents

1 Radioactivity: History and Phenomenology

1.1 Basic Description of the Atomic Nucleus. Nuclear Stability

1.1.1 Simple Nuclear Models

1.1.2 Atomic and Mass Numbers. Isobars, Isotopes, and Isotone Nuclei

1.1.3 Unstable Nuclides

1.2 Discovery of Radioactivity

1.2.1 Some Historic Data

1.2.2 Phenomenology of Radioactivity

1.3 Types of Radioactivity

1.3.1 Alpha Radioactivity

1.3.2 Beta Radioactivity: Electrons, Positrons, and Electron Capture

1.3.3 Gamma Radioactivity: Electromagnetic Radiation, Conversion Electrons, and Isomers

1.3.4 Other Radioactivity Types: Double Beta Decay, Proton and Neutron Emissions, Exotic Radioactivity, Fission

1.4 X-rays. Auger Electrons

References

2 Radioactivity: Decay Law, Definitions, and Units

2.1 Exponential Decay Law. Decay Constant, Half-Life and Mean-Life

2.2 Radioactive Activity and Units

2.2.1 Exponential Law of Activity

2.2.2 Becquerels and Curies

2.3 Radioactive Series

2.3.1 Bateman Equations

2.3.2 Transient and Secular Equilibria

2.4 Partial Activities. Branching Ratio and Intensity of Radiation

2.5 Decay Schemes

3 Natural and Artificial Radioactivity

3.1 Primordial Radionuclides

3.1.1 Long-Lived Radionuclides

3.1.2 Natural Radioactive Series

3.2 Cosmogenic Radionuclides

3.2.1 Cosmic Radiation

3.2.2 Production of Radionuclides by Cosmic Radiation

3.3 Artificial Radionuclides

3.3.1 Some Historic Data

3.3.2 Production of Radionuclides in Accelerators

3.3.3 Production of Radionuclides in Nuclear Reactors

4 Environmental Radioactivity

4.1 Presence of Natural Radioactivity in the Environment

4.1.1 Primordial Radionuclides

4.1.2 Cosmogenic Radionuclides

4.1.3 NORM Materials and Non-nuclear Industries

4.2 Sources of Artificial Radionuclides

4.2.1 The Start of the Nuclear Era. The Bomb Pulse

4.2.2 Radioactive Fallout

4.2.3 Nuclear Fuel Reprocessing Plants

4.2.4 Other Nuclear Facilities and Activities: Nuclear Power Plants

4.2.5 Nuclear Accidents

5 Levels and Behavior of Environmental Radioactivity

5.1 Dynamics of Radioactivity in the Environment

5.1.1 General Concepts of Radioecology

5.1.2 Radionuclide Speciation in the Environment

5.1.3 Exchange and Transport Processes. Transfer Parameters

5.1.4 Mathematical Modeling

5.2 Levels and Behavior of Radioactivity in the Atmosphere

5.2.1 Radioactivity in the Air

5.2.2 The Radon Problem

5.3 Levels and Behavior of Radioactivity in the Lithosphere. Radioactive Particles

5.3.1 Soils

5.3.2 Radioactive Particles

5.4 Levels and Behavior of Radioactivity in Fresh Waters

5.4.1 Rivers and Sediments

5.4.2 Lakes and Sediments

5.4.3 Groundwater

5.5 Levels and Behavior of Radioactivity in Oceans

5.5.1 Global Circulation

5.5.2 Seawater

5.5.3 Marine Sediments

5.6 Levels and Behavior of Radioactivity in the Biosphere

5.6.1 Plants, Animals

5.6.2 Seaweed and Other Marine Bioindicators

5.7 Levels and Behavior of Radioactivity in Foods

5.7.1 Drinking Water

5.7.2 Foodstuffs and Food Raw Materials

6 Radiological Impact. Radiation Dosimetry

6.1 Radiation Dosimetry

6.1.1 Radiation Exposure, Absorbed Dose and Dose Equivalent: Magnitudes and Units

6.1.2 Effective and Committed Doses and Other Magnitudes

6.2 Biological Effects of Radioactivity

6.2.1 Stochastic and Deterministic Effects

6.2.2 Radiation Effects on Human Health

6.3 Radiological Impact

6.3.1 Radiation Protection Programs

6.3.2 Radiation Protection Regulations

References

7 Principles of Radiation Detection: Interaction of Radiation with Matter

7.1 Interaction of Gamma Radiation with Matter

7.1.1 Photoelectric Effect

7.1.2 Compton Effect

7.1.3 Pair Production

7.1.4 Attenuation and Absorption Coefficients

7.1.5 Designing Gamma Radiation Detectors

7.2 Interaction of Charged Particles with Matter

7.2.1 Ionization and Excitation

7.2.2 Stopping Power. The Bethe-Bloch Equation

7.2.3 Bremsstrahlung

7.2.4 Cherenkov Radiation

7.2.5 Range, Specific Ionization, and Bragg Curves

7.2.6 Designing Charged-Particle Detectors

7.3 Nuclear Reactions. Interaction of Neutrons with Matter

7.3.1 Nuclear Reactions with Neutrons

7.3.2 Path of Neutrons Through Matter

7.3.3 Designing Neutron Detectors

8 Principles of Radiation Detection: Counting and Spectrometry

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Counting Efficiency

8.2.1 Absolute Efficiency

8.2.2 Partial Efficiencies. Photopeak Efficiency

8.3 Background of Detectors

8.3.1 Sources and Components

8.3.2 Background Corrections

8.4 Dead Time

8.4.1 Sources of Dead Time

8.4.2 Dead-Time Corrections

8.5 Energy Spectra

8.5.1 Components

8.5.2 Energy Resolution

9 Gas Ionization Detectors

9.1 Physics of Gas Ionization Detectors

9.1.1 Ionization in Gases

9.1.2 Charge Transfer Reactions in Gases

9.1.3 Multiplication of Charge in Gases. Townsend Avalanche

9.2 Ionization Chamber

9.3 Proportional Counters

9.4 Geiger-Müller Counters

9.5 Radiation Counting and Spectrometry with Gas Ionization Detectors

9.6 Background in Gas Ionization Detectors

10 Scintillation Detectors

10.1 Physics of Scintillation Detectors

10.1.1 Organic Scintillators

10.1.2 Inorganic Scintillators

10.1.3 Gas Scintillators

10.1.4 Photomultipliers

13.5 Efficiency Calibration of Radiation Counters and Spectrometers

13.5.1 Calibration Curves for Charged Particles

13.5.2 Calibration Curves for Gamma Radiation

13.6 Speciation Studies

13.7 Quality Assurance

14 Principles of Low-Level Counting and Spectrometry

14.1 Need of Low-Level Counting Techniques (LLC)

14.1.1 Levels of Radioactivity in the Environment

14.1.2 Problems Requiring LLC

14.2 Counting Statistics

14.2.1 The Random Nature of Radioactivity

14.2.2 Uncertainty Calculations in Radioactivity Measurements

14.3 Figure of Merit (FOM)

14.3.1 Definition and FOM Equation

14.3.2 Analysis of the FOM Equation

14.4 Generalized Figure of Merit

14.4.1 Definition and Equation

14.4.2 Analysis of the Equation

14.5 Designing an LLC Experiment

14.5.1 Sampling Strategy

14.5.2 Counting or Spectrometry, or Both

14.6 Limit of Detection and Minimum Detectable Activity

15 Low-Level Counting and Spectrometry Techniques

15.1 Techniques for Detector Background Suppression

15.1.1 Passive Shielding

15.1.2 Active Shielding

15.1.3 Underground Laboratories

15.2 Techniques for Increasing Counting Efficiency

15.2.1 External Counting and Spectrometry

15.2.2 Internal Counting and Spectrometry

15.2.3 Radiation Coincidence Techniques

16 Principles of Mass Spectrometry

16.1 Limitations of Radiometric Methods. Need for Mass Spectrometry Techniques

16.1.1 Loss of Information by Counting Emitted Radiation

16.1.2 Counting Atoms Instead of Emitted Radiation

16.2 Basics of Mass Spectrometry

16.2.1 Electrostatic and Magnetic Rigidity

16.2.2 The Mass-Energy Plane

16.2.3 The Dynamic Approach

16.3 Low-Energy Mass Spectrometers: TIMS, SIMS, GDMS, RIMS, ICP-MS

16.4 Applications to Environmental Radioactivity

10.2 Counting and Spectrometry with Scintillation Detectors

10.3 Gamma-Ray Spectrometry with Scintillation Detectors

10.3.1 Pulse Height Spectrum

10.3.2 Identification of Radionuclides and Activity Calculation

10.4 Counting and Spectrometry with Liquid Scintillation Detectors

10.4.1 Technical Aspects

10.4.2 Applications

10.5 Background in Scintillation Detectors

11 Semiconductor Detectors

11.1 Physics of Semiconductor Detectors

11.1.1 Electron-hole Production

11.1.2 Energy Resolution

11.1.3 Types of Semiconductor Detectors

11.2 Gamma-Ray Spectrometry with Semiconductor Detectors

11.2.1 Pulse Height Spectrum

11.2.2 Identification of Radionuclides and Activity Calculation

11.3 Alpha- and Beta-Spectrometry with Semiconductor Detectors

11.3.1 Pulse Height Spectrum

11.3.2 Activity Determination

11.4 X-ray Spectrometry with Semiconductor Detectors

11.4.1 Pulse Height Spectrum

11.4.2 Activity Determination

11.5 Background in Semiconductor Detectors

12 Dosimeters, Other Detectors, and Specific Designs

12.1 Dosimeters

12.1.1 Active Dosimeters

12.1.2 Passive Dosimeters

12.2 Track Detectors

12.3 ΔE-E Telescopes

12.4 Time-Of-Flight Spectrometers

12.5 Cherenkov Detectors

12.5.1 Cherenkov Threshold Counters

12.5.2 Cherenkov Differential Detectors

12.5.3 Cherenkov Circular Image Detectors

13 Radiochemistry for Environmental Samples

13.1 Sampling Techniques

13.1.1 Solid Samples

13.1.2 Liquid Samples

13.1.3 Atmospheric Samples

13.1.4 Biological Samples

13.2 Sample Transport and Storage

13.3 Chemical Procedures

13.3.1 Preconcentration Processes

13.3.2 Separation and Purification Procedures

13.3.3 Source Preparation for Counting and Spectrometry

13.4 Yield Determination

Notes:

17 Principles of Particle Accelerators

Description based on print version record

Includes index

Other Format:

Print version García-León, Manuel Detecting Environmental Radioactivity

ISBN:

9783031099700

3031099702

OCLC:

1355232161

Access Restriction:

Restricted for use by site license