Southwood's ecological methods / Peter A. Henderson.

Format:

Book

Author/Creator:

Henderson, P. A., author.

Contributor:

Southwood, Richard, Sir.

UPSO (University Press Scholarship Online)

Standardized Title:

Ecological methods

Language:

English

Subjects (All):

Ecology--Methodology.

Ecology.

Ecology--Data processing.

Animal populations.

Animal populations--Statistical methods.

Physical Description:

1 online resource (xix, 508 pages) : illustrations (black and white, and colour

Edition:

Fifth edition.

Place of Publication:

Oxford : Oxford University Press, 2021.

System Details:

text file

Contents:

1 Introduction to the Study of Animals p. 1

1.1 Population estimates p. 1

1.1.1 Absolute and related estimates p. 2

1.1.2 Relative estimates p. 2

1.1.3 Population indices p. 2

1.2 Errors and confidence p. 3

1.2.1 Calculating confidence limits about the mean using R p. 4

1.2.2 Jackknife and bootstrap estimation of confidence limits p. 4

1.3 Studies of communities p. 6

2 The Sampling Programme and the Measurement and Description of Dispersion p. 8

2.1 Preliminary sampling p. 8

2.1.1 Planning and fieldwork p. 8

2.1.2 Data control and statistical aspects p. 12

2.1.3 The normal distribution and transformations p. 14

2.2 The sampling programme p. 19

2.2.1 The number of samples per habitat unit (e.g. plant, host, or puddle) p. 19

2.2.2 The sampling unit: its selection, size, and shape p. 21

2.2.3 The number of samples p. 23

2.2.4 The pattern of sampling p. 24

2.2.5 The timing of sampling p. 26

2.3 Dispersion p. 27

2.3.1 Mathematical distributions that serve as models p. 27

2.4 Aggregation indices p. 34

2.4.1 Index of dispersion: the departure of the distribution from randomness p. 34

2.4.2 Taylor's power law as a measure of aggregation p. 34

2.4.3 Pattern analysis p. 37

2.4.4 Lloyd's mean crowding and patchiness p. 37

2.4.5 Iwao's ρ index: a measure of colony area p. 39

2.4.6 Lloyd's mean crowding and Iwao's patchiness regression indices for the population and species p. 40

2.4.7 Breder's equations: a measure of the cohesion of aggregations p. 40

2.4.8 Deevey's coefficient of crowding p. 41

2.4.9 SADIE: Spatial Analysis by Distance Indices p. 42

2.5 Nearest-neighbour and related techniques: measures of population size or of the departure from randomness of the distribution p. 43

2.5.1 Nearest-neighbour method p. 45

2.5.2 Closest individual or distance method p. 46

2.6 Sequential sampling p. 46

2.6.1 Sampling numbers p. 46

2.7 Presence-absence sampling: binomial data analysis p. 49

2.8 Sampling a fauna p. 51

2.9 Biological and other qualitative aspects of sampling p. 51

3 Absolute Population Estimates Using Capture-Recapture Experiments p. 63

3.1 Capture-recapture methods p. 64

3.2 What accuracy can be expected? p. 64

3.2.1 Assumptions common to most methods p. 65

3.2.2 Estimating closed populations p. 67

3.2.3 Estimations for open populations p. 75

3.3 The Fisher-Ford method p. 78

3.3.1 Bailey's triple-catch method p. 78

3.3.2 Jolly-Seber stochastic method p. 79

3.3.3 Robust design p. 82

3.3.4 Manly and Parr's and Manly et al.'s ageing methods p. 82

3.3.5 Cormack's log-linear method p. 83

3.4 Methods of marking animals p. 84

3.4.1 Handling techniques p. 85

3.4.2 Release p. 87

3.4.3 Surface marks using paints and solutions of dyes p. 87

3.4.4 Dyes and fluorescent substances in powder form p. 90

3.4.5 Pollen p. 92

3.4.6 Marking formed by feeding on or absorption of dyes p. 93

3.4.7 Marking by injection, Panjet, or tattooing p. 94

3.4.8 External tags p. 95

3.4.9 Branding p. 96

3.4.10 Mutilation p. 96

3.4.11 Natural marks, photo-ID, parasites, and genes p. 96

3.4.12 Rare elements p. 97

3.4.13 Protein marking p. 98

3.4.14 Radioactive isotopes p. 98

3.4.15 Radio and sonic tags p. 98

4 Absolute Population Estimates by Sampling a Unit of Habitat: Air, Plants, Plant Products, and Vertebrate Hosts p. 113

4.1 Sampling from the air p. 113

4.2 Sampling apparatus p. 114

4.2.1 Exposed cone (Johnson-Taylor) suction trap p. 114

4.2.2 Enclosed cone types of suction trap, including the Rothamstead 12-m trap p. 115

4.2.3 Rotary and other traps p. 115

4.2.4 Remote aerial vehicles as insect samplers p. 117

4.3 Comparison and efficiencies of the different types of suction trap p. 117

4.3.1 Conversion of catch to aerial density p. 118

4.3.2 Conversion of density to total aerial population p. 119

4.4 Sampling from plants p. 119

4.4.1 Assessing the plant p. 120

4.4.2 Determining the numbers of invertebrates p. 120

4.4.3 The separation of exposed small animals from the foliage on which they are living p. 121

4.4.4 The expulsion of animals from tall vegetation p. 124

4.4.5 The extraction of animals from herbage and debris p. 126

4.4.6 Methods for animals in plant tissues p. 133

4.4.7 Special sampling problems with animals in plant material p. 134

4.5 Sampling from vertebrate hosts p. 135

4.5.1 Sampling from living hosts p. 135

4.5.2 Sampling from dead hosts p. 137

4.5.3 Sampling from vertebrate 'homes' p. 138

5 Absolute Population Estimates by Sampling a Unit of Aquatic Habitat p. 145

5.1 Open water p. 145

5.1.1 Nets p. 145

5.1.2 Pumps p. 148

5.1.3 Water sampling bottles p. 149

5.1.4 The Patalas-Schindler volume sampler p. 149

5.1.5 Particular methods for insects p. 150

5.2 Vegetation p. 151

5.2.1 Floating vegetation p. 151

5.2.2 Emergent vegetation p. 154

5.2.3 Submerged vegetation p. 155

5.3 Bottom fauna p. 156

5.3.1 Hand net sampling of forest litter p. 157

5.3.2 Sampling from under stones p. 157

5.3.3 The planting of removable portions of the substrate p. 159

5.3.4 Cylinders and boxes for delimiting an area p. 160

5.3.5 Trawls, bottom sledges and dredges p. 162

5.3.6 Grabs p. 164

5.3.7 Dendy inverting sampler p. 166

5.3.8 Box samplers and corers p. 168

5.3.9 Air-lift and suction devices p. 168

5.4 Poisons and anaesthetics used for sampling fish in rock pools and small ponds p. 171

6 Absolute Population Estimates by Sampling a Unit of Soil or Litter Habitat: Extraction Techniques p. 176

6.1 Sampling p. 176

6.2 Bulk staining p. 178

6.3 Mechanical methods of extraction p. 178

6.3.1 Dry sieving p. 178

6.3.2 Wet sieving p. 179

6.3.3 Soil washing and flotation p. 180

6.3.4 Flotation p. 182

6.3.5 The separation of plant and insects by differential wetting p. 183

6.3.6 Centrifugation p. 185

6.3.7 Sedimentation p. 185

6.3.8 Elutriation p. 185

6.3.9 Sectioning p. 187

6.3.10 Aeration p. 188

6.4 Behavioral or dynamic methods p. 188

6.4.1 Dry extractors p. 188

6.4.2 The Winkler method p. 192

6.4.3 Wet extractors p. 193

6.4.4 Chemical extraction p. 197

6.4.5 Electrical extraction p. 197

6.5 Summary of the applicability of the methods p. 197

6.5.1 Substrate type p. 197

6.5.2 Animal type p. 198

6.5.3 Cost p. 199

7 Relative Methods of Population Measurement and the Derivation of Absolute Estimates p. 204

7.1 Factors affecting the size of relative estimates p. 204

7.1.1 The 'phase' of the animal p. 204

7.1.2 The activity of the animal p. 205

7.1.3 Differences in the response between species, sexes, and individuals p. 207

7.1.4 The efficiency of the trap or searching method p. 208

7.2 The uses of relative methods p. 209

7.2.1 Measures of the availability p. 209

7.2.2 Indices of absolute population p. 210

7.2.3 Estimates of absolute population p. 210

7.2.4 'Calibration' by comparison with absolute estimates p. 210

7.3 Removal trapping or collecting p. 211

7.3.1 Assumptions underlying Zippin's and Carle and Strub's methods p. 211

7.3.2 Software for the computation of population size using removal sampling p. 212

7.3.3 Simplified calculations with two or three sampling occasions p. 212

7.3.4 Graphical and regression methods with constant probability of capture p. 213

7.3.5 Dealing with variable probabilities of capture and the general maximum likelihood model p. 213

7.4 Collecting p. 214

7.5 Relative methods: catch per unit effort p. 214

7.5.1 Observation by radar p. 214

7.5.2 Hydroacoustic methods p. 215

7.5.3 Fish counters p. 216

7.5.4 Electric fishing p. 216

7.5.5 Aural detection p. 217

7.5.6 Exposure by plough p. 217

7.5.7 Collecting with a net or similar device p. 217

7.5.8 Visual searching and pooting p. 222

7.6 Relative methods: trapping p. 222

7.6.1 Interception traps p. 223

7.6.2 Water: drift samplers and fish traps p. 225

7.6.3 Flight traps combining interception and attraction p. 231

7.6.4 Light and other visual traps p. 234

7.7 Traps that attract animals by some natural stimulus or a substitute p. 243

7.7.1 Shelter traps p. 243

7.7.2 Trap host plants p. 244

7.7.3 Baited traps p. 244

7.7.4 The use of vertebrate hosts or substitutes as bait for insects p. 247

7.7.5 Using sound p. 251

8 Estimates of Species Richness and Population Size Based on Signs, Products, and Effects p. 268

8.1 Arthropod products p. 268

8.1.1 Exuviae p. 268

8.1.2 Frass p. 269

8.2 Vertebrate products and effects p. 271

8.3 Effects due to an individual insect p. 272

8.4 General effects: plant damage p. 273

8.4.1 Criteria p. 273

8.5 Determining the relationship between damage and insect populations p. 276

9 Wildlife Population Estimates by Census and Distance Measuring Techniques p. 281

9.1 Census methods p. 282

9.2 Point and line survey methods p. 282

9.2.1 Indices of abundance using transects p. 282

9.3 Line transect methods: the Fourier series estimator p. 284

9.4 Point transects p. 288

9.5 Distance sampling software in R p. 288

9.6 Spatial distribution and plotless density estimators p. 289

9.6.1 Closest-individual or distance method p. 290

9.6.2 Nearest-neighbour methods p. 290

10 Observational and Experimental Methods to Estimate Natality, Mortality, Movement, and Dispersal p. 293

10.1 Natality p. 293

10.2 Fertility p. 293

10.3 Numbers entering a stage p. 295

10.4 The birth rate from mark-recapture data p. 300

10.5 Mortality p. 300

10.5.1 Total mortality p. 300

10.5.2 Exclusion techniques p. 305

10.6 Dispersal p. 311

10.6.1 Detecting and quantifying jump dispersal p. 311

10.6.2 Quantifying neighbourhood dispersal p. 312

10.6.3 Methods based on a two-dimensional solution of the diffusion equation p. 318

10.6.4 The boundary-flux approach p. 319

10.6.5 The rate of population interchange between two areas p. 319

10.6.6 The description of population displacement in relation to its dispersion p. 320

10.6.7 The measurement and description of home range and territory p. 320

10.6.8 The rate of colonization of a new habitat and artificial substrates p. 324

10.6.9 The direction of migration p. 324

11 The Construction, Description, and Analysis of Age-Specific Life-Tables p. 336

11.1 Types of life-table and the budget p. 336

11.2 The construction of a budget p. 336

11.3 Analysis of stage-frequency data p. 337

11.3.1 Southwood's graphical method p. 338

11.4 Richards and Waloff's first method p. 338

11.4.1 Manly's method p. 340

11.4.2 Ruesink's method p. 340

11.4.3 Dempster's method p. 341

11.4.4 Richards and Waloff's Second Method p. 341

11.4.5 Kiritani, Nakasuji, and Manly's method p. 342

11.4.6 Kempton's method p. 343

11.4.7 The Bellows and Birley method p. 343

11.5 The description of budgets and life-tables p. 344

11.5.1 Survivorship curves p. 344

11.5.2 Stock-recruitment (Moran-Ricker) curves p. 344

11.5.3 The life-table and life expectancy p. 346

11.5.4 Life and fertility tables and the net reproductive rate p. 347

11.6 Population growth rates p. 348

11.6.1 The calculation of r p. 349

11.7 The analysis of life-table data p. 350

11.7.1 The comparison of mortality factors within a generation p. 351

11.8 Survival and life budget analysis p. 351

11.8.1 Varley and Gradwell's method: K-value or key-factor analysis p. 352

11.8.2 Sibley's λ contribution analysis p. 357

11.8.3 Methods devoloped from demographic methods p. 358

12 Age-Grouping, Time-Specific Life-Tables, and Predictive Population Models p. 362

12.1 Age-grouping p. 362

12.1.1 Ageing young by developmental stage p. 362

12.1.2 Ageing by using structures p. 364

12.2 Time-specific life-tables and survival rates p. 371

12.2.1 Physiological time p. 372

12.2.2 Life-table parameters p. 373

12.2.3 Recruitment in the field p. 373

12.2.4 Lewis-Leslie matrices and R packages p. 374

13 Species Richness, Diversity, and Packing p. 384

13.1 Diversity p. 385

13.2 Description of α- and γ-diversity p. 385

13.3 Species richness p. 386

13.3.1 Extrapolating the species accumulation curve, rarefaction p. 387

13.3.2 Rarefaction to compare species richness p. 390

13.3.3 Sample-based rarefaction p. 391

13.3.4 An example of sample-based rarefaction p. 391

13.3.5 Using parametric models of relative abundance to estimate species richness p. 391

13.3.6 Non-parametric estimates of species richness p. 392

13.3.7 Software for calculating species richness and rarefaction p. 393

13.3.8 Models for the S:N relationship p. 394

13.4 Non-parametric indices of diversity p. 398

13.4.1 Shannon-Wiener function (H) p. 398

13.4.2 Simpson-Yule index (D) p. 399

13.5 Berger-Parker dominance index p. 399

13.5.1 Evenness (equitability) p. 400

13.5.2 McIntosh diversity measure p. 400

13.5.3 Comparing diversities, diversity ordering, and Hill numbers p. 400

13.5.4 Which model or index? p. 401

13.6 Procedure to determine α-diversity p. 403

13.7 Determining ß-diversity p. 404

13.8 Partitioning ß-diversity between species replacement and loss p. 405

13.9 Similarity and the comparison and classification of samples p. 406

13.9.1 Measures of complementarity p. 406

13.9.2 Similarity indices p. 406

13.9.3 Computation and display of indices p. 408

13.10 Multivariate analysis p. 409

13.10.1 Cluster analysis p. 410

13.10.2 Ordination p. 414

13.10.3 Species packing p. 415

13.11 Measurement of interspecific association p. 416

13.11.1 The departure of the distribution of presence or absence from independence p. 416

13.12 Measurement of resource-utilization p. 418

13.12.1 Species packing in terms of mean and width of resource-utilization spectrum (d / w method) p. 420

13.12.2 Species packing in terms of proportional utilization of different resource states (pi method) p. 421

13.13 Niche size and competition coefficients p. 422

13.13.1 Software to calculate niche overlap statistics p. 423

14 Estimation of Productivity and the Construction of Energy Budgets p. 430

14.1 Estimation of standing crop p. 432

14.2 Measurement of biomass p. 432

14.3 Determination of energy density p. 433

14.4 Estimation of energy flow p. 433

14.5 The measurement of production p. 434

14.6 The measurement of feeding and assimilation p. 436

14.6.1 The quality of the food eaten p. 436

14.6.2 Feeding and assimilation rates p. 437

14.7 The measurement of the energy loss due to respiration and metabolic process p. 440

14.7.1 Calorimetric p. 440

14.7.2 The exchange of respiratory gases p. 440

14.8 The energy budget, efficiencies, and transfer coefficients p. 446

14.9 The energy budget of a population (or trophic level) p. 446

14.9.1 Dynamic energy budget models p. 447

14.9.2 Energy transfer across trophic links p. 449

14.10 Identification of ecological pathways using stable isotopes p. 449

14.11 Assessment of energy and time costs of strategies p. 451

15 Techniques for the Study of Long-Term Dynamics: Analyzing Time Series p. 458

15.1 Examples of Long-term studies and the need for careful interpretation of change p. 458

15.2 Planning temporal sampling p. 460

15.3 The classification of time series p. 460

15.3.1 Using R for time series decomposition p. 462

15.4 Detecting synchrony and species associations between time series p. 470

15.5 Measuring temporal variability p. 471

15.5.1 Tilman's index of community stability p. 473

15.6 Detecting break-points p. 473

15.7 Determining if a species has become extinct p. 476

15.8 Detection of density dependence in time series p. 477

15.8.1 Bulmer's (1975) test p. 477

15.8.2 Pollard et al.'s (1987) randomization test p. 478

15.8.3 Dennis and Taper's (1994) bootstrap approach p. 479

15.8.4 Using a battery of approaches to detect density dependence p. 480

15.9 Temporal ß-diversity p. 481

15.9.1 Similarity and dissimilarity measures p. 482

15.9.2 Zeta diversity p. 482

15.9.3 Turnover measures p. 483

15.9.4 Mean rank shift p. 483

15.9.5 Defining the assemblage of interest: which taxa should be included? p. 483

15.9.6 Null models and the nature of change p. 483

16 Studies at Large Spatial Scales, Citizen Science, and the Classification of Habitats p. 487

16.1 Planning spatial and temporal sampling p. 487

16.2 Remote sensing data from satellites p. 488

16.3 Remote sensing using piloted and unmanned aircraft p. 490

16.4 Distributed networks of sensors and samplers p. 490

16.5 Biodiversity and inventory databases p. 491

16.6 Detecting break-points p. 491

16.7 Geographical information systems p. 491

16.8 Citizen science projects p. 492

16.9 Ecosystem services p. 493

16.10 Species richness change and scale p. 494

16.11 Habitat classification p. 494

16.11.1 Qualitative p. 494

16.11.2 Quantitative p. 494.

Notes:

Previous edition: published as Ecological methods. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2016.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

Electronic reproduction. Oxford Available via World Wide Web.

Description based on print version record.

Related Work:

Southwood, Richard, Sir. Ecological methods.

ISBN:

9780191895067

0191895067

Publisher Number:

99988021163

Access Restriction:

Restricted for use by site license.