Biofuels for aviation : feedstocks, technology and implementation / edited by Christopher J. Chuck.

Format:

Book

Contributor:

Chuck, Christopher J., editor.

Language:

English

Subjects (All):

Airplanes--Fuel.

Airplanes.

Airplanes--Fuel systems.

Physical Description:

1 online volume : illustrations

Edition:

1st ed.

Place of Publication:

London : Academic Press, [2016]

Summary:

Biofuels for Aviation: Feedstocks, Technology and Implementation presents the issues surrounding the research and use of biofuels for aviation, such as policy, markets, certification and performance requirements, life cycle assessment, and the economic and technical barriers to their full implementation.

Contents:

Front Cover

Biofuels for Aviation

Copyright Page

Contents

List of Contributors

Preface

I. An Overview of the Sector

1 The Prospects for Biofuels in Aviation

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Growth in Air Transportation, Fuel Use, and CO2 Emissions

1.3 Government and Industry Initiatives to Control Air Transportation CO2 Emissions

1.3.1 Airline Industry and Government Targets

1.3.2 European Emissions Trading Scheme

1.3.3 ACARE Targets

1.3.4 Biofuel Targets

1.4 Transportation System CO2 Intensity

1.5 Aircraft CO2 Intensity

1.6 Reducing Air Transportation CO2 Intensity

1.7 Biofuels for Aviation: Opportunities and Challenges

1.8 Conclusions

References

2 Feedstocks for Aviation Biofuels

2.1 Feedstocks for Bio-Derived Aviation Fuels

2.1.1 Fermentation Sugars

2.1.2 Lignocellulosic Feedstocks

2.1.2.1 Agricultural Residue

2.1.2.2 Food Waste

2.1.2.3 Dedicated Energy Crops

2.1.3 Triglyceride Oils

2.1.3.1 Oleaginous Yeasts

2.1.4 Algae

2.1.4.1 Oleaginous Microalgae and Third-Generation Biofuels

2.1.4.2 Non-oleaginous Species for Thermochemical Upgrading

2.1.5 Seaweed

2.2 Challenges and Opportunities

2.2.1 Genetic Engineering

2.2.2 Biodiversity

2.2.3 Land Use Change Leading to Elevated Carbon Emissions

2.2.4 Logistical Considerations

2.2.5 Effect of Climate Change and Yield Improvement on Feedstock Availability

2.3 Summary

3 Certification and Performance: What Is Needed from an Aviation Fuel?

3.1 Introduction to Relevant Standards

3.2 Discussion of Some Drop-In Fuel Property Requirements

3.2.1 Heating Value and Density

3.2.2 Freezing Point and Fluidity at Low Temperatures

3.2.3 Combustion Cleanliness

3.2.4 Fuel System Compatibility

3.2.5 Thermal Stability, Flash Point, and Vapour Pressure.

3.2.6 Sulphur Content and Other Contaminants

3.3 Speculation on Possible Future Changes in ASTM 7566 Requirements

3.3.1 Historical Trend

3.3.2 Reduced Aromatic and Cycloparaffin Content

3.3.3 New Generalized Annex for the Fermented Sugar Production Route

3.3.4 Flash Point Reduction

3.3.5 Removal of Blend Fraction Constraint

3.3.6 Possible Introduction of Small Mass Fraction Blend Annexes

3.4 Prospects for All-New, Non-Drop-In Fuels

II. The Science and Technology of Developing Biofuels for Aviation

4 The Suitability of Fatty Acid Methyl Esters (FAME) as Blending Agents in Jet A-1

4.1 An Introduction to FAME in Jet A-1

4.1.1 Current Restrictions of FAME Blends in Jet Fuel

4.1.2 Potential Benefits of FAME Blends in Jet Fuel

4.1.3 Objectives

4.2 Methods Used in the Testing of FAME Components in Jet-A1

4.2.1 Chemical Materials

4.2.2 Aircraft Materials

4.2.3 Extraction of Camelina Seeds

4.2.4 Esterification and Transesterification

4.2.5 Distillation

4.2.6 Blending

4.2.7 Experimental Setup, Conditions, and Calibration of the Smoke Point

4.2.8 Procedures to Test Materials Compatibility

4.2.8.1 Polymers

4.2.8.2 Metals

4.2.8.3 Composites

4.3 Application and Testing of Specific FAME Blends

4.3.1 Oxidation Stability

4.3.2 Fuel Metering and Aircraft Range

4.3.2.1 Density

4.3.2.2 Lower Heating Value

4.3.3 Kinematic Viscosity

4.3.4 Fluidity at Low Temperature

4.3.4.1 Freezing Point

4.3.4.2 Cloud Point and Pour Point

4.3.4.3 Cold Filter Plugging Point

4.3.5 Fuel Lubricity: High Frequency Reciprocating Rig (HFRR) Test

4.3.6 Fuel Handling: Flash Point

4.3.7 Fuel Cleanliness and Contamination: Acidity and Water Content

4.3.8 Colour

4.3.9 Fuel Gauging Performance and Other Performance Properties

4.3.10 Payload Range of FAME Blends.

4.3.11 Sooting Tendency

4.4 Material Compatibility With DFAME

4.4.1 Polymers

4.4.1.1 Tensile Stress Test

4.4.1.2 Hardness Test

4.4.1.3 Dimensional Linear Variation

4.4.1.4 Mass Variation

4.4.1.5 Solubility of Elastomers in the Fuels

4.4.2 Metals

4.4.3 Composites

4.5 Conclusions

5 Aviation Biofuels Through Lipid Hydroprocessing

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Effect of Catalysts on Lipid Hydroprocessing

5.2.1 Composition of Lipids and Their Effects

5.2.2 Lipid Hydroprocessing Over Various Catalytic Systems

5.2.2.1 Co-Processing Lipids With Refinery Streams

5.2.2.2 Direct Processing of Lipid Sources

5.2.2.2.1 Hydrotreating of Lipids

5.2.2.2.2 Hydrocracking of Lipids

5.2.2.2.3 Conventional Sulfided Catalysts

5.2.2.2.4 Nonconventional Nonsulfided Catalysts

5.2.2.3 Isomerization Selectivity

5.3 Kinetics, Reaction Mechanisms, and Pathways

5.4 Path Forward and Challenges

5.5 Conclusion

6 Low-Carbon Aviation Fuel Through the Alcohol to Jet Pathway

Acronyms and Abbreviations

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Background

6.2.1 Types of Jet Fuel

6.2.1.1 Jet A

6.2.1.2 Jet A-1

6.2.1.3 JP-8

6.2.1.4 JP-9 and JP-10

6.2.1.5 Jet Fuels Containing Hydrocarbons From Nonconventional Sources

6.2.2 Composition of Turbine Jet Fuels

6.2.3 Approaches to Producing Alternative Fuels

6.2.4 Standard Specifications

6.3 Approaches to Producing Synthetic Paraffin Kerosene (SPK) Jet Fuel From Ethanol

6.3.1 Ethylene Intermediate

6.3.1.1 Direct Oligomerization of Ethylene

6.3.1.2 Conversion of Ethylene to Intermediate Olefins for Oligomerization

6.3.2 Propylene Intermediate

6.3.3 Higher Alcohol Intermediate

6.3.4 Carbonyl Intermediate

6.3.5 Summary of Ethanol Processes

6.3.6 Higher Alcohols

6.4 Adjusting the Aromatic Content of the Product.

6.4.1 Ethanol to Aromatics

6.4.2 Olefins to Aromatics

6.4.3 Biomass Liquefaction to Hydrocarbons

6.5 Market Drivers for Ethanol to Jet Fuel

6.5.1 The Need for Alternative Jet Fuel

6.5.1.1 Fuel Cost

6.5.1.2 Climate Change

6.5.1.3 Other Air Pollutants

6.5.1.4 National Security

6.5.1.5 Government Interest in Alternative Jet Fuel

6.5.1.6 Industry Interest in Alternative Jet Fuel

6.5.2 Inherent Improvement in Energy Density From Ethanol to Jet Fuel

6.5.3 Government Impacts/Incentives

6.5.3.1 Carbon Taxes

6.5.3.2 Renewable Fuel Credits

6.5.4 Marketing Advantages

6.5.5 Markets and Prices

6.5.5.1 Ethanol and Jet Prices

6.5.5.2 Ethanol and Higher Alcohols

6.6 Conclusions and Recommendations

7 Metabolic Engineering Strategies to Convert Carbohydrates to Aviation Range Hydrocarbons

7.1 Introduction

7.1.1 Why Use Microbes for Fuel Production?

7.1.2 Natural Fuel Molecules and Prospective Production Hosts

7.1.3 General Metabolic Engineering Principles

7.2 Fatty Acid-Derived Aviation Range Biofuels

7.2.1 Fatty Acid Biosynthesis and Degradation

7.2.2 Engineering Examples to Increase FAB and Lipid Production

7.2.2.1 Engineering Acetyl-CoA Metabolism

7.2.2.2 Fatty Acid and Lipid Overproduction

7.2.2.2.1 Overexpression of Enzymes Directly Related to FAB

7.2.2.2.2 Release of Free Fatty Acids as a Means to Increase Flux Through FAB

7.2.2.2.3 Preventing Degradation of Fatty Acids - Blocking β-oxidation

7.2.2.2.4 Manipulating Storage Lipid Formation in Yeast for Increased Free Fatty Acids

7.2.2.2.5 Influencing Fatty Acid Metabolism Through Regulatory Components

7.2.2.2.6 Increasing Storage Lipid Formation in Yeast

7.2.2.2.7 FAB Through Reversed β-Oxidation.

7.2.3 Natural Straight-Chain Hydrocarbon-Forming Pathways and Metabolic Engineering Strategies to Produce Alka(e)nes

7.2.3.1 Two-Step Reduction: Alkane Formation Through the Combined Action of Fatty Acid Reductases and Fatty Aldehyde Deform...

7.2.3.2 One-Step Reduction: Terminal Alkene Synthesis

7.2.3.3 Head-to-Head Condensation

7.2.3.4 Attempts to Diversify Alkane Production

7.2.4 Limitations and Future Directions

7.3 Isoprenoids as Aviation Fuels

7.3.1 Biosynthesis

7.3.2 Metabolic Engineering to Increase Isoprenoid Production in Microbial Hosts

7.3.2.1 Saccharomyces cerevisiae

7.3.2.2 Escherichia coli

7.3.2.3 Other Organisms

7.3.3 Production of Monoterpene Hydrocarbons

7.3.3.1 Pinene

7.3.3.2 Limonene

7.3.3.3 Sabinene, Phellandrene, and Myrcene

7.3.4 Production of Sesquiterpene Hydrocarbons

7.3.4.1 Valencene

7.3.4.2 Bisabolene

7.3.4.3 Farnesene

7.3.5 Conclusion and Perspectives

8 Pyrolysis of Biomass for Aviation Fuel

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Pyrolysis Feedstocks

8.3 Bio-oil Composition and Properties

8.4 Fast Pyrolysis of Biomass

8.4.1 Mechanisms of Action

8.4.2 Fast Pyrolysis Review

8.4.3 Fast Pyrolysis Bio-oil Upgrading

8.5 Catalytic Fast Pyrolysis of Biomass

8.5.1 Catalysts

8.5.1.1 Zeolites

8.5.1.2 Metal-impregnated Zeolites

8.5.1.3 Supported Metal Catalysts

8.5.1.4 Metal Oxides

8.6 Jet Fuel-Specific Pyrolysis

8.7 Conclusions and Final Remarks

9 Towards an Aviation Fuel Through the Hydrothermal Liquefaction of Algae

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Hydrothermal Processing of Algal Feedstocks

9.2.1 Reaction Mechanism

9.3 Hydrothermal Liquefaction of Microalgae

9.3.1 Effect of Biomass Composition on Bio-Crude Oil Production

9.3.2 Effect of Microalgal Loading on Product Formation.

9.3.3 Effect of Holding Temperature on Microalgal Processing.

Notes:

Includes bibliographical references and index.

Description based on publisher supplied metadata and other sources.

ISBN:

9780128032152

0128032154

OCLC:

992804427