Nanofabrication : principles to laboratory practice / Andrew Sarangan, University of Dayton, OH, USA.

Format:

Book

Author/Creator:

Sarangan, Andrew, author.

Contributor:

Alumni and Friends Memorial Book Fund.

Taylor & Francis eBooks.

Series:

Optical sciences and applications of light

Language:

English

Subjects (All):

Nanolithography.

Nanostructured materials--Design and construction.

Nanostructured materials.

Semiconductors--Etching.

Semiconductors.

Nanoelectronics--Experiments.

Nanoelectronics.

Physical Description:

1 online resource (xv, 299 pages.)

Place of Publication:

Boca Raton : CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, 2017.

System Details:

text file

Summary:

Device fabrication (fab) has evolved into several distinct areas over the years. The manufacture of CMOS chips in a high volume fab has become a significantly different operation from an R&D lab. Whereas yield, throughput, and efficiency are the primary considerations in manufacturing, an R&D fab at a university or national lab operates very differently, where the focus is on flexibility and diversity of materials and processes. As a result, the tools and techniques used in these two environments have also evolved differently. Nanofabrication: Principles to Laboratory Practice provides a fundamental understanding of commonly used device fabrication processes and tools in an R&D environment. Grown out of a graduate laboratory course, this book is based on many years of hands-on experience with process development as well as building, operating and maintaining a cleanroom laboratory. The reader is assumed to have a basic background in general physics, chemistry and electromagnetics, which are used to explain nanofabrication processes, mathematical models and their limitations. In addition to the fundamental principles, this book also provides practical strategies and process tips for anyone working in a typical R&D cleanroom. As such, it can serve as a general reference text for practicing scientists and engineers, or as an introductory text for senior undergraduate and graduate students. While the majority of other books focus on silicon integrated circuit fabrication, this book provides a more generic discussion of nanofabrication, and includes examples from areas such as photonic devices and optical coatings. In addition, problems and suggested laboratory exercises are included to enhance retention and insights. Book jacket.

Contents:

Chapter 1 Introduction to Micro- and Nanofabrication 1

1.1 Introduction to Micro- and Nanofabrication 1

1.1.1 Importance of Understanding the Techniques 1

1.1.2 Creative Problem Solving 2

1.1.3 What Has Been Done by Others versus What You Can Do 2

1.1.4 Experiment versus Project 2

1.1.5 Nano and the Media 3

1.1.6 Carbon versus Silicon and Self-Assembly versus Micromachining 3

1.1.7 Nanotechnology Is Old 3

1.1.8 Moore's Prediction and Driving Forces 4

1.1.9 Why Components Have to Be Small 4

1.1.10 Nanofabrication Is a Multidisciplinary Science 5

1.1.11 Units of Measure 5

1.2 Cleanrooms for Device Fabrication: Basic Concepts 5

1.2.1 Cleanroom Classification and Airflow Rates 7

1.2.2 Particle Count Measurement 9

1.2.3 Service Access 9

1.2.4 Humidity, Temperature, and Lighting 10

1.2.5 Safety 10

Problems 10

Laboratory Exercise 11

References 11

Chapter 2 Fundamentals of Vacuum and Plasma Technology 13

2.1 Fundamentals of Vacuum 13

2.1.1 Conductance 15

2.1.2 Pumping 16

2.1.3 Effect of a Vacuum Hose 18

2.1.4 Rough Vacuum 19

2.1.5 High-Vacuum Pumps 23

2.1.5.1 Turbo Molecular Pumps 23

2.1.5.2 Cryo Pumps 26

2.1.6 Leaks 29

2.1.7 Adsorption and Desorption 29

2.1.8 Types of Pumps 31

2.2 Pressure and Flow Measurements 32

2.2.1 Pressure (or Vacuum) Measurement 32

2.2.2 Gas Flow Rate Measurement 36

2.3 Fundamentals of Plasmas for Device Fabrication 37

2.3.1 Parallel Plate Configuration 38

2.3.2 Electron and Bulk Gas Temperature 42

2.3.3 Langmuir's Probe 45

2.3.4 DC Ion Sputtering and Implantation 46

2.3.5 RF Plasma 47

2.3.6 Other Electrical Plasmas 50

Problems 51

Laboratory Exercises 51

References 51

Chapter 3 Physical and Chemical Vapor Deposition 53

3.1 Physical Vapor Deposition 53

3.1.1 Thermal Evaporation 53

3.1.1.1 Resistance Heating Method 55

3.1.1.2 Electron Beam Evaporation 55

3.1.1.3 Thermal Evaporation Rate from the Source 59

3.1.1.4 Deposition Rate and Distribution 60

3.1.1.5 E-Beam Evaporation of Dielectrics 61

3.1.1.6 Reactive Thermal Evaporation 62

3.1.1.7 Thermal Evaporation of Alloys and Compounds 62

3.1.1.8 Ion-Assisted Deposition 62

3.1.2 Sputter Removal and Deposition 64

3.1.2.1 Sputter Removal Mechanism 65

3.1.2.2 Sputter Yield 66

3.1.2.3 Magnetron Sputtering 69

3.1.2.4 Sputter Removal Rate 69

3.1.2.5 Sputter Deposition Rate 70

3.1.2.6 Dependence of Sputter Deposition Rate on Pressure 71

3.1.2.7 Energy of the Sputtered Atoms 71

3.1.2.8 Sputter Up versus Sputter Down 72

3.1.2.9 Compound Sputtering 73

3.1.2.10 Co-Sputtering 74

3.1.2.11 Reactive Sputtering 74

3.1.2.12 Thermal Evaporation versus Sputtering 75

3.1.3 Pulsed Laser Deposition 76

3.2 Chemical Vapor Deposition 77

3.2.1 Atmospheric Pressure Chemical Vapor Deposition 81

3.2.2 Low-Pressure Chemical Vapor Deposition 82

3.2.3 Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition 83

3.2.4 Atomic Layer Deposition 84

3.3 Thin-Film Measurements 85

3.3.1 Thickness Measurement with a Quartz Crystal Microbalance 85

3.3.1.1 Temperature Sensitivity 87

3.3.1.2 Tooling Factor 88

3.3.1.3 Film Stress 88

3.3.1.4 Deposition Energy 88

3.3.1.5 Density and z-Ratio 88

3.3.2 Thickness Measurement with a Stylus Profiler 89

3.3.3 Measurement of Optical Properties 89

3.3.4 Thin-Film Stress 89

3.3.4.1 Origins of Film Stress 90

3.3.4.2 Measurement of Stress 90

3.3.4.3 Compressive Stress 92

3.3.4.4 Tensile Stress 92

3.3.4.5 Stress Reduction 93

3.4 Thin-Film Materials 93

3.4.1 Titanium 93

3.4.2 Chromium 93

3.4.3 Aluminum 93

3.4.4 Copper 93

3.4.5 Gold 94

3.4.6 Silver 94

3.4.7 Platinum 94

3.4.8 Nickel 94

3.4.9 Tungsten 94

3.4.10 Molybdenum 94

3.4.11 Vanadium 94

3.4.12 Silicon 95

3.4.13 Germanium 95

3.4.14 Aluminum Oxide 95

3.4.15 Magnesium Fluoride 95

3.4.16 Silicon Dioxide 95

3.4.17 Titanium Dioxide 95

3.4.18 Niobium Oxide 95

3.4.19 Zinc Sulfide 96

3.4.20 Vanadium Oxide 96

Problems 96

Laboratory Exercises 96

References 97

Chapter 4 Thin-Film Optics 99

4.1 Antireflection Coatings 99

4.1.1 Fresnel Reflection 99

4.1.2 Single-Layer Antireflection Coating 100

4.1.3 Two-Layer Quarter-Wave Film Designs 103

4.1.4 Two-Layer Non-Quarter-Wave Film Designs 105

4.1.5 Three-Layer Antireflection Design 108

4.2 Transfer Matrix Method for Modeling Optical Thin Films 108

4.3 High-Reflection Dielectric Coatings 111

4.4 Metal Film Optics 112

4.4.1 Reflectance Properties of Metals 112

4.4.2 Antireflection for Metals 114

4.4.3 High Optical Transmission through Metals 117

4.5 Optical Thin-Film Deposition 120

Problems 124

Laboratory Exercises 125

References 125

Chapter 5 Substrate Materials 127

5.1 Silicon 128

5.1.1 Silicon Wafer Manufacture 128

5.1.1.1 Raw Material 128

5.1.1.2 Crystal Growth 129

5.1.1.3 Ingot Processing 129

5.1.1.4 Wafer Saw 129

5.1.1.5 Etching, Lapping, and Polishing 129

5.1.1.6 Finished Silicon Wafers 130

5.1.2 Silicon Crystal Orientations 130

5.1.2.1 (100) Planes 131

5.1.2.2 (110) Planes 131

5.1.2.3 (111) Planes 131

5.1.2.4 Other Crystal Planes 131

5.1.2.5 Crystal Orientations and Their Properties 131

5.1.2.6 (100) Wafer 132

5.1.2.7 (110) Wafer 132

5.2 Silica 134

5.3 Sapphire 134

5.4 Compound Semiconductors 135

5.5 Properties of Substrates 136

References 136

Chapter 6 Lithography 139

6.1 Substrate Cleaning and Preparation 139

6.1.1 Acetone-Methanol-Isopropyl Alcohol (AMI) Cleaning 139

6.1.2 Piranha (Sulfuric Peroxide Mixture) Cleaning 140

6.1.3 RCA Cleaning 140

6.1.4 Buffered Oxide Etch (BOE) Clean 140

6.1.5 Plasma Cleaning 140

6.1.6 Megasonic Cleaning 141

6.1.7 Evaluation of Surface Quality 141

6.2 Spin Coating 142

6.2.1 Stage 1: Dispense Stage 142

6.2.2 Stage 2: Spread Stage 142

6.2.3 Stage 3: Thin-Out Stage 143

6.2.4 Stage 4: Evaporation Stage 147

6.2.5 Edge Bead 149

6.2.6 Common Problems Encountered in Spin Coating 149

6.2.7 Solvent Bake (Soft Bake) 151

6.3 Photomasks 152

6.3.1 Laser-Written Photomasks 152

6.3.2 Film Photomasks 154

6.3.3 Electron Beam-Written Photomasks 154

6.4 UV Light Sources 156

6.5 Contact Mask Lithography 157

6.6 Projection Photolithography 160

6.7 Basic Properties of Photoresists 163

6.7.1 Components of Photoresists 163

6.7.2 Effects of Moisture on Photoresist Performance 165

6.7.3 Development 166

6.7.4 Modeling the Optical Performance of Photoresists 166

6.7.4.1 Dill Parameters 166

6.7.4.2 Diffusion 168

6.7.4.3 Numerical Shooting Method for Modeling the Optical Field 168

6.7.4.4 Solubility Model 174

6.7.4.5 Quasi-Two-Dimensional Model 175

6.7.4.6 Bottom Antireflection Coatings 178

6.7.5 Negative-Tone Photoresists 181

6.7.6 Image Reversal 181

6.7.7 Substrate Priming 182

6.7.8 Hard Bake 184

6.8 SU-8 Photoresist 184

6.9 Patterning by Lithography 187

6.9.1 Etch-Down Patterning 187

6.9.2 Lift-Off Patterning 189

6.9.3 Bilayer Lift-Off 190

6.9.4 Etch-Down versus Lift-Off Patterning 190

6.9.4.1 Film Adhesion 190

6.9.4.2 Etch Chemistry 191

6.9.4.3 Linewidth Control 191

6.9.4.4 Film Thickness 191

6.9.4.5 Outgassing 192

6.9.5 Patterning by Planarization 192

6.10 Laser Interference Lithography 193

6.11 Resolution Enhancement Techniques 195

6.11.1 Phase-Shifted Masks 196

6.11.2 Optical Proximity Corrections 196

6.11.3 Self-Aligned Double Patterning 196

6.11.4 Directed Self-Assembly 198

6.12 Extreme-UV Lithography 198

6.13 Nonoptical Lithography 199

6.13.1 Electron Beam Lithography 199

6.13.2 Nanoimprint Lithography 202

Problems 203

Laboratory Exercises 203

References 204

Chapter 7 Wet Chemical and Plasma Etching 209

7.1 Wet Chemical Etching 209

7.1.1 Basic Principles 209

7.1.2 Wet Chemical Etch of Selected Materials 212

7.1.2.1 Silicon Dioxide Etch 212

7.3.2.1 Silicon Nitride Etch 214

7.1.2.1 Silicon Etch 215

7.1.2.2 Aluminum Etch 215

7.1.2.3 Copper Etch 215

7.1.2.4 Titanium Etch 215

7.1.2.7 Gold Etch 215

7.1.2.8 Silver Etch 215

7.1.3 Orientation-Dependent Wet Etching of Silicon 215

7.1.3.1 (100) Silicon Etch with KOH 215

7.1.3.2 (110) Silicon Etch with KOH 219

7.1.3.3 Other Elchants for Orientation-Dependent Etching of Silicon 220

7.2 Plasma Etching 221

7.2.1 Basic Construction of a Plasma Etcher 222

7.2.2 Free Radicals and Ions in a Plasma and Their Roles 223

7.2.3 Inductively Coupled Plasma Etching 227

7.2.4 Substrate Temperature 228

7.2.5 Silicon Etching 228

7.2.5.1 SF₆ Plasma for Etching Silicon 229

7.2.5.2 CF₄ Plasma for Etching Silicon 231

7.2.5.3 Mixed Gas Fluorine Plasmas for Etching Silicon 232

7.2.5.4 CI₂ Plasma for Etching Silicon 233

7.2.6 Photoresist Erosion in a Plasma Etch 234

Problems 237

Laboratory Exercises 238

References 238

Chapter 8 Doping, Surface Modifications, and Metal Contacts 241

8.1 Thermal Budget 241

8.2 Doping by Thermal Diffusion 242

8.2.1 Vapor, Liquid, and Solid Dopant Sources 242

8.2.2 Calculation of Diffusion Profiles 246

8.2.3 Masking for Thermal Diffusion 252

8.3 Ion Implantation 254

8.3.1 Doping by Ion Implantation 254

8.3.2 Masking Materials for Ton Implantation 258

8.3.3 Implantation for Silicon-on-Insulator Substrates 258

8.4 Thermal Oxidation of Silicon 261

8.5 Metal Contacts to Semiconductors 268

References 275

Chapter 9 Metrology for Device Fabrication 279

9.1 Semiconductor Device Fabrication Metrology 279

9.1.1 Substrate Defect Metrology 279

9.1.2 Lithography Metrology 279

9.1.3 Gate Dielectrics 282

9.1.4 Metrology for Ion Implantation 283

9.2 Interconnect Metrology 285

9.2.1 Low-ε Dielectric Film Metrology 286

9.2.2 Metal Layer Metrology 286

9.2.3 CMP Metrology 286

References 287.

Notes:

Includes bibliographical references and index.

Electronic reproduction. London Available via World Wide Web.

Description based on print version record.

Local Notes:

Acquired for the Penn Libraries with assistance from the Alumni and Friends Memorial Book Fund.

ISBN:

9781315370514

1315370514

Publisher Number:

99977122842

Access Restriction:

Restricted for use by site license.