Virtual reality : scientific and technological challenges / Nathaniel I. Durlach and Anne S. Mavor, editors.

Format:

Book

Contributor:

Durlach, Nathaniel I.

Mavor, Anne S.

National Research Council (U.S.). Committee on Virtual Reality Research and Development.

Language:

English

Subjects (All):

Human-computer interaction.

Virtual reality.

Physical Description:

xi, 542 p. : ill.

Edition:

1st ed.

Place of Publication:

Washington, D.C. : National Academy Press, 1995.

Language Note:

English

Summary:

Despite widespread interest in virtual reality, research and development efforts in synthetic environments (SE)--the field encompassing virtual environments, teleoperation, and hybrids--have remained fragmented. Virtual Reality is the first integrated treatment of the topic, presenting current knowledge along with thought-provoking vignettes about a future where SE is commonplace. This volume discusses all aspects of creating a system that will allow human operators to see, hear, smell, taste, move about, give commands, respond to conditions, and manipulate objects effectively in a real or virtual environment. The committee of computer scientists, engineers, and psychologists on the leading edge of SE development explores the potential applications of SE in the areas of manufacturing, medicine, education, training, scientific visualization, and teleoperation in hazardous environments. The committee also offers recommendations for development of improved SE technology, needed studies of human behavior and evaluation of SE systems, and government policy and infrastructure.

Contents:

Virtual REALITY

Copyright

Contents

Preface

Executive Summary

RECOMMENDATIONS

Applications

Psychological Considerations

Technology

Human-Machine Interfaces

Computer Hardware and Software

Telerobotics

Networks

Evaluation

Government Policy and Infrastructure

I OVERVIEW

II Research And Technology

1 Some Psychological Considerations

RESOLUTION, ILLUSIONS, AND INFORMATION TRANSFER

MANUAL CONTROL, TRACKING, AND HUMAN OPERATOR MODELS

Subsystem Decomposition of the Human Operator

Sensory Substitution

THE SUBJECTIVE SENSE OF TELEPRESENCE

ALTERATIONS OF SENSORIMOTOR LOOPS

DISCOMFORT

LEARNING AND PROBLEM SOLVING

MOTIVATION

ATTITUDE, OPINION FORMATION, AND PERSONALITY EFFECTS

RESEARCH NEEDS

2 The Visual Channel

STATUS OF THE RELEVANT HUMAN RESEARCH

SE-Relevant Aspects of Visual System Organization

Sensory Constraints for Displays

The Third Dimension

Augmented-Reality Systems

Sensory Adaptation to Visual Distortion

STATUS OF THE TECHNOLOGY

Components and Technologies

Display Surfaces and Optics

Autostereoscopic Displays

Integrated Systems

Head-Mounted Displays

Off-Head Displays

Advantages and Disadvantages of Head-Mounted and Off-Head Displays

3 The Auditory Channel

Resolution and Information Transfer Rates

Auditory Displays

Spatial Perception

Auditory Scene Analysis

Adaptation to Unnatural Perceptual Cues

Headphone Displays

Room-Acoustics Modeling

Off-Head, Hear-Through, and Augmented-Reality Displays

Computer Generation of Nonspeech Audio

Synthesis Techniques

Synthesis Technology

Perceptual Issues

4 Haptic Interfaces

STATUS OF THE RELEVANT HUMAN RESEARCH.

The Human Haptic System

Input-Output Variables of Haptic Interactions

Sensing and Control of Interface Variables

Limb Position and Motion

Net Forces of Contact

Perception of Contact Conditions and Object Properties

Summary

Tactile Sensory System

Kinesthetic Sensory System

Motor System

Active Touch Involving All Three Systems

Terminology and Variables of Haptic Interfaces

Classification of Haptic Interfaces

Current Technology

Hardware

Software

Summary of Current Technology and Future Possibilities

Human Haptics

Biomechanical Investigations

Psychophysical Investigations

Technology Development

Matching Performance of Humans and Haptic Devices

Comfort (Ergonomics)

Methods of Stimulation

Evaluation of Haptic Interfaces

5 Position Tracking and Mapping

HAND TRACKING

EYE TRACKING

HEAD TRACKING

BODY MAPPING AND TRACKING

Mechanical Trackers

Goniometers

Ground-Based Linkages

Magnetic Trackers

Optical Sensing

Passive Stereo Vision Systems

Marker Systems

Structured Light Systems

Laser Radar

Laser Interferometers

Acoustic Trackers

Inertial Tracking

Eye Tracking

6 Whole-Body Motion, Motion Sickness, and Locomotion Interfaces

Sensorimotor Stability During Self-Motion

Head Movements

Arm Movements

Locomotion

Body Orientation

Illusions of Self-Motion

Motion Sickness

WHOLE-BODY MOTION AND LOCOMOTION INTERFACES

Inertial Displays

Full Inertial Displays

Partial Inertial Displays

Variable Gravity Displays

Locomotion Displays

Treadmill-Type Displays

Haptic Interfaces for Individual Feet

Noninertial Displays

Visual Displays

Vestibular Displays.

Proprioceptive/Kinesthetic Displays

7 Speech, Physiology, and Other Interface Components

SPEECH RECOGNITION AND SYNTHESIS

Speech Recognition

State of the Art in Speech Recognition

Speech Synthesis

PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES

Autonomic Nervous System Responses

Brain Activity

Cognitive Function

Functional and Structural Information

Brain-Actuated Control

OTHER INTERFACE COMPONENTS

8 Computer Hardware and Software for the Generation of Virtual Environments

HARDWARE FOR COMPUTER GRAPHICS

Notable Graphics Workstations and Graphics Hardware

Graphics Architectures for VE Rendering

Computation and Data Management Issues in Visual Scene Generation

An Example: The Virtual Wind Tunnel

Strategies for Meeting Requirements

Graphics Capabilities in PC-Based VE Systems

SOFTWARE FOR THE GENERATION OF THREE-DIMENSIONAL VIRTUAL ENVIRONMENTS

Interaction Software

Existing Technologies

Design Approaches and Issues to be Addressed

Visual Scene Navigation Software

Survey of Currently Developed Navigation Software

Survey of Hierarchical Data Structure Techniques for Polygon Flow Minimization

Application-Specific Solutions

World Modeling

Geometric Modeling: Construction and Acquisition

Dynamic Model Matching and Augmented Reality

Physical Simulation for Visual Displays

Autonomous Agents

Populating the World: NPSNET as an Example

Hypermedia Integration

HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE ISSUES TO BE ADDRESSED

Modeling

TECHNICAL APPENDIX

Silicon Graphics from the IRIS-1400 to the RealityEngine 2

Onyx RealityEngine2

Evans &amp

Sutherland Freedom 3000.

Graphics Hardware from the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill: PixelPlanes 4, 5, and PixelFlow

9 Telerobotics

INTRODUCTION

Relation to Robotics

Relation to Virtual Environments

REMOTE MANIPULATORS

Kinematics

General Positioning Capabilities

Redundancies

Workspace

Serial Versus Parallel Mechanism

Kinematic Solvability

Actuation

Macrorobots

Micromotion Actuators

End Effectors

Sensors

Joint Motion Sensors

Joint Torque Sensors

Wrist Force/Torque Sensors

Tactile Sensors

Proximity Sensors

REMOTE VEHICLES

Systems

Class 1 Systems: Power and Data Tethered

Class 2 Systems: Data Tethered

Class 3 Systems: Nontethered Telemetry

Class 4 Systems: Nontethered, No Telemetry

Technologies and Directions

Sensor Systems

Platforms

High-Level Robotic Control

Human-Machine Interface

LOW-LEVEL CONTROL OF TELEOPERATORS

Position-Based Teleoperation

Coupled Control of Manipulators for Force-Feedback Teleoperation

Delay

Robustness

Scaling

Performance Evaluation

SUPERVISORY CONTROL

Generic Paradigm for Supervisory Control

Status of Research in Supervisory Control

Computer-Based Planning of Telerobot Actions

Teaching the Telerobot What to Do

Computer Assistance in Monitoring

Intervening and Learning

Predictor Displays to Cope with Time Delay

Visual and Haptic Aids

Performance Measurement, Learning, and Modeling

REAL-TIME COMPUTING

Requirements

Levels of Control

Low-Level Control

Intermediate Level Control

High-Level Control

Latency Versus Update Period

System Architecture

Processors and Computing Platforms

Parallel Processing and Communications

Operating Systems and Development Environments

Handling Communication Delays

Accurate, Real-Time Simulations.

Real-Time Computing

Better Robot Hardware

Multiaxis, High-Resolution Tactile Sensors

Robust Proximity Sensors

Multiaxis Force Sensors

High-Performance Joints

Improved Telerobotic Controllers

10 Networking and Communications

Wide-Area Networks

Local-Area Networks

Issues to be Addressed

COMMUNICATIONS SOFTWARE

11 Evaluation of Synthetic Environment Systems

GENERAL ISSUES IN SYSTEM EVALUATION

SPECIAL ISSUES IN SE EVALUATION

Evaluation of System Characteristics

Observation and Measurement of Human Behavior in SEs

III Applications

12 Specific Applications of SE Systems

DESIGN, MANUFACTURING, AND MARKETING

Rationale

Specific Manufacturing Applications

Building Prototypes Electronically

Electronic Configuration and Management of Production Lines

Exemplar Industries

Textiles

Aerospace

MEDICINE AND HEALTH CARE

Specific Medical Applications

Preservice and Continuing Medical Education

Teaching Anatomy

Surgical Training

Accreditation

Surgical Planning

Telemedicine

Telesurgery

Rehabilitation

TELEOPERATION FOR HAZARDOUS OPERATIONS

Survey of Major Applications

Toxic Environments

Space Operations

Teleoperated Heavy Machinery

Off-the-Ground Environments

Firefighting and Security

Bulk Transportation Environments

Ocean Environments

Infrastructure and Research Needs

TRAINING

The Future

Specific Applications

Training Transfer

Research Needs

EDUCATION

Simulated Field Trips and Telepresence

Spatial Relations

Playrooms to Build Things

Micro Worlds

Simulations

Desirability.

Effectiveness and Feasibility.

Notes:

"Committee on Virtual Reality Research and Development, Commission on Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education, Commission on Physical Sciences, Mathematics, and Applications, National Research Council."

Includes bibliographical references (p. 444-515) and index.

ISBN:

9786610211135

9780309176828

0309176824

9781280211133

128021113X

9780309587259

0309587255

9780585023021

0585023026

OCLC:

923262340