Stability and degradation of organic and polymer solar cells / editor, Frederik C. Krebs.

Format:

Book

Contributor:

Krebs, Frederik C.

Language:

English

Subjects (All):

Polymers--Deterioration.

Polymers.

Photovoltaic cells.

Organic compounds--Biodegradation.

Organic compounds.

Physical Description:

368 pages : illustrations ; 2 6 cm

Place of Publication:

Hoboken, N.J. : Wiley, 2012.

Summary:

Organic photovoltaics (OPV) are a new generation of solar cells with the potential to offer very short energy pay back times, mechanical flexibility and significantly lower production costs compared to traditional crystalline photovoltaic systems. A weakness of OPV is their comparative instability during operation and this is a critical area of research towards the successful development and commercialization of these 3rd generation solar cells.

Covering both small molecule and polymer solar cells, Stability and Degradation of Organic and Polymer Solar Cells summarizes the state of the art understanding of stability and provides a detailed analysis of the mechanisms by which degradation occurs. Following an introductory chapter which compares different photovoltaic technologies, the book focuses on OPV degradation, discussing the origin and characterization of the instability and describing measures for extending the duration of operation.

Topics covered include:

Chemical and physical probes for studying degradation

Imaging techniques

Photochemical stability of OPV materials

Degradation mechanisms

Testing methods

Barrier technology and applications

Stability and Degradation of Organic and Polymer Solar Cells is an essential reference source for researchers in academia and industry, engineers and manufacturers working on OPV design, development and implementation. Book jacket.

Contents:

1 The Different PV Technologies and How They Degrade / Frederik C. Krebs Krebs, Frederik C. 1

1.1 The Photovoltaic Effect and the Overview 1

1.2 The Photovoltaic Technologies 2

1.3 Intrinsic Versus Extrinsic Stability 3

1.3.1 Intrinsic Stability 3

1.3.2 Extrinsic Stability 3

1.4 Degradation - The Culprits, the What, the Why and the How 3

1.5 Some Representative Technologies and How They Degrade 4

1.5.1 Mono- and Polycrystalline Silicon Solar Cells 5

1.5.2 Amorphous, Micro-and Nanocrystalline Silicon Solar Cells 6

1.5.3 CIS/CIGS Solar Cells 8

1.5.4 CdS/CdTe Solar Cells 9

1.5.5 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells (DSSC) 10

1.5.6 Organic and Polymer Solar Cells (OPV) 11

References 12

2 Chemical and Physical Probes for Studying Degradation / Birgitta Andreasen Andreasen, Birgitta, Kion Norrman Norrman, Kion 17

2.1 Introduction 17

2.2 Physical Probes 18

2.2.1 UV-vis Spectroscopy 18

2.2.2 Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) 18

2.2.3 Interference Microscopy 20

2.2.4 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) 21

2.2.5 Fluorescence Microscopy 23

2.2.6 Light-Beam Induced-Current Microscopy (LBIC) 24

2.2.7 Electroluminescence and Photoluminescence Imaging Microscopy (ELI and PLI) 25

2.2.8 X-ray Reflectometry 26

2.3 Chemical Probes 27

2.3.1 Infrared Spectroscopy (IR) 27

2.3.2 Time-of-Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (TOF-SDVIS) 28

2.3.3 X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) 32

2.4 Summary and Outlook 35

References 36

3 Imaging Techniques for Studying OPV Stability and Degradation / Marco Seeland Seeland, Marco, Roland Rosch Rosch, Roland, Harald Hoppe Hoppe, Harald 39

3.1 Introduction to Imaging Techniques 39

3.1.1 Microscopy and Optical Scanning 39

3.1.2 Luminescence Imaging 40

3.1.3 Lock-In Thermography 43

3.1.4 Light-Beam Induced Current 45

3.2 Reports 46

3.2.1 Background: Degradation of OLED Devices 46

3.2.2 Light-Beam Induced Current 50

3.2.3 Luminescence Imaging 54

3.2.4 Optical Microscopy 57

3.2.5 Dark Lock-In Thermography and LBIC 58

3.2.6 Dark Lock-In Thermography and Optical Scanning for Failure Analysis 62

3.3 Discussion: Comparison of Imaging Techniques 63

3.4 Summary 66

Acknowledgement 66

References 66

4 Photochemical Stability of Materials for OPV / Matthieu Manceau Manceau, Matthieu, Agnès Rivaton Rivaton, Agnès, Jean-Luc Gardette Gardette, Jean-Luc 71

4.1 Introduction 71

4.2 Methods 72

4.2.1 Aging Condition 72

4.2.2 Degradation Monitoring 74

4.3 State-of-the-Art 82

4.3.1 Degradation of the π-Conjugated Polymer 82

4.3.2 Acceptor Material Aging and Blend Degradation 99

References 102

5 Degradation of Small-Molecule-Based OPV / Martin Hermenau Hermenau, Martin, Moritz Riede Riede, Moritz, Karl Leo Leo, Karl 109

5.1 Comparison to Small-Molecule OLEDs 110

5.1.1 Number of Photoexcitations per Molecule 113

5.2 Comparison to Polymer Solar Cells 115

5.2.1 Sensitivity to Air 115

5.2.2 Temperature Stability 115

5.3 Small-Molecule Organic Materials 116

5.3.1 Active Materials 116

5.3.2 Transport-and Exciton-Blocking Materials 119

5.4 Degradation Conditions 125

5.4.1 Oxygen and Water 125

5.4.2 UV Radiation 132

5.5 State-of-the-Art in Lifetime Studies 134

5.6 Summary and Outlook 138

References 139

6 Degradation of Polymer-Based OPV / Mikkel Jørgensen Jørgensen, Mikkel, Frederik C. Krebs Krebs, Frederik C. 143

6.1 Focus on the Degradation and Stability of Polymer Solar Cells 143

6.2 A Chart of Degradation and Stability of Polymer Solar Cells 143

6.3 A Short Account of the OPV Stability/Degradation History 144

6.3.1 The Divisions of Degradation Mechanisms 146

6.3.2 The Methodologies 148

6.4 Modus Operandi for Evolving OPV 148

6.5 The Recent Developments 149

6.5.1 The Photocatalytic Oxides 149

6.5.2 Interlayers 150

6.5.3 The Inverted Structure 151

6.5.4 R2R Processing 152

6.5.5 Lamination and Encapsulation 153

6.5.6 Water Processing 154

6.5.7 Mechanical Degradation - Delamination 155

6.6 Interlaboratory Studies and Round Robins 156

6.7 Outside Studies 157

6.8 How Far Can OPV Be Taken in Terms of Stability? 158

References 158

7 Test Equipment for OPV Stability / Olivier Haillant Haillant, Olivier 163

7.1 Introduction 163

7.2 Reliability and Durability Testing of PV Products 165

7.2.1 Reliability, a Function of Durability 165

7.2.2 Environmental Durability 166

7.2.3 Durability and Weathering Testing 167

7.3 Laboratory Weathering Testing 168

7.3.1 Acceleration 168

7.3.2 Relevance 169

7.3.3 Precision 170

7.3.4 Introduction to Determination of Acceleration Factors 170

7.4 Durability Testing Techniques 172

7.4.1 Outdoor Weathering 172

7.4.2 Laboratory Weathering 175

7.4.3 Laboratory Photoaging 180

7.4.4 Others 183

7.5 Conclusion 185

References 186

8 Characterization and Reporting of OPV Device Lifetime / Suren A. Gevorgyan Gevorgyan, Suren A. 193

8.1 Introduction 193

8.2 Photoelectric Characterization of OPV Devices 194

8.2.1 Photoelectric Characterization Tools 194

8.2.2 Characterization in Controlled Environments 197

8.3 Interlaboratory Studies of OPVs 202

8.3.1 Introduction 202

8.3.2 Interlaboratory Studies of Flexible Large-Area Roll-to-Roll Processed Polymer Solar Cell Modules 203

8.3.3 Interlaboratory Stability Studies of OPVs 204

8.4 Lifetime Testing and Reporting: Standardized Approach 213

8.4.1 Introduction 213

8.4.2 Procedures for Standard Lifetime Measurements 214

8.4.3 Reporting Lifetime 235

8.5 Conclusions 238

List of Abbreviations 238

References 238

9 Concentrated Light for Organic Photovoltaics / Thomas Tromholt Tromholt, Thomas 243

9.1 Introduction 243

9.2 Light-Concentration Setups 245

9.2.1 Refractive Sunlight Concentration 245

9.2.2 Reflective Sunlight Concentration 246

9.2.3 Concentrated Solar Simulation 249

9.3 Experimental Work Performed with Concentrated Light 251

9.3.1 IPV Response to Concentrated Sunlight 251

9.3.2 Polymer Response to Concentrated Light 253

9.3.3 Organic Solar Cell Response to Concentrated Light 257

9.4 Physical Characterization by Concentrated Sunlight 261

9.5 Conclusion 265

References 265

10 Barrier Technology and Applications / Lars Müller-Meskamp Müller-Meskamp, Lars, John Fahlteich Fahlteich, John, Frederik C.

Krebs Krebs, Frederik C. 269

10.1 Encapsulation Requirements 269

10.1.1 Types of Encapsulation 270

10.1.2 Glass/Glass Encapsulation 271

10.1.3 Lamination of Barrier Films 272

10.1.4 Thin-Film Encapsulation 273

10.1.5 Perimeter Sealing 273

10.2 Thin-Film Permeation Physics 274

10.2.1 Solid-State Diffusion and Diffusion in Polymers 274

10.2.2 Fick's First Law of Diffusion 275

10.2.3 Sorption 276

10.2.4 Permeation in Thin Films 277

10.2.5 Models for the Permeation Barrier Coated Polymer Films 278

10.2.6 Temperature Dependence of Permeation 279

10.2.7 Dependence of Water Permeation on Layer Thickness 280

10.2.8 Time Dependence of Permeation 282

10.2.9 Permeation in Multilayer Barriers 284

10.2.10 Pinholes in Multilayer Systems 287

10.3 Measurement of Barrier Properties 288

10.3.1 Gravimetric Cup 289

10.3.2 Carrier-Gas-Based Coulometric Barrier Measurement 289

10.3.3 Mass Spectrometer 290

10.3.4 Direct Pressure Measurement 291

10.3.5 Radioactive Isotopes 292

10.3.6 Calcium Test (Optical or Electrical) 293

10.3.7 Device Testing 294

10.3.8 Standards and Typical Measurement Conditions 295

10.3.9 Test Method Overview 295

10.4 Barrier Technologies 295

10.4.1 Single-Layer Technologies 297

10.4.2 Multilayer Technologies 309

10.5 Barrier Application in OPV 315

10.5.1 Products 316

10.5.2 Barrier Cost and Manufacturability 318

10.6 Conclusion 321

References 322

11 Summary and Outlook / Frederik C. Krebs Krebs, Frederik C. 331.

Notes:

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN:

9781119952510

1119952514

OCLC:

774694920