Education in Ethiopia : strengthening the foundation for sustainable progress.

Format:

Book

Government document

Contributor:

World Bank.

Series:

World Bank country study

A World Bank country study

Language:

English

Subjects (All):

Education--Ethiopia.

Education.

Ethiopia.

Physical Description:

xlix, 285 pages : illustrations, color map ; 26 cm.

Place of Publication:

Washington, D.C. : World Bank, [2005]

Summary:

Education in Ethiopia: Strengthening the Foundation for Sustainable Progress is part of the World Bank Country Study series. These reports are published to communicate the results of the Bank's work on the economic and related conditions of member countries to governments and to the development community.

With the end of civil war in 1991, Ethiopia's government launched a New Education and Training Policy in 1994 which, by the early 2000s, had already produced remarkable results. The gross enrollment ratio rose from 20 to 62 percent in primary education between 1993-94 and 2001-02; and in secondary and higher education it increased from 8 to 12 percent and from 0.5 to 1.7 percent, respectively.

Yet, the Government can hardly afford to rest on its laurels. Primary education is still not universal, and already there are concerns about plummeting educational quality and the growing pressures to expand post-primary education. Addressing these challenges will require more resources, both public and private. Yet, money alone is insufficient. This book argues for wise tradeoffs in the use of resources-a result that will often require reforming the arrangements for service delivery. These changes, in turn, need to be fostered: a) by giving lower levels of government more leeway to adapt central standards-such as those for teacher recruitment and school construction-to local conditions, including local resource constraints, and b) by strengthening accountability for results at all levels of administration in the education system.

Contents:

Designing the Overall Policy Framework xxvii

Getting Resources to Schools, Communities, and Households xxxviii

Taking Advantage of Decentralization to Get Results xlvi

1 Demography, Economy, and Government Finance 1

Demographic and Social Conditions 2

Economic Conditions 9

Pattern of Government Finance 11

2 Enrollments and Patterns of Student Flow 23

Structure of the Education System 23

Overview of Enrollment Trends 25

Enrollments in Government and Nongovernment Establishments 28

Evening Classes, Distance Education, and Nonformal Basic Education 30

Trends and Levels in the Gross Enrollment Ratio 36

Student Flow in Primary and Secondary Education 40

Issues for Policy Development 55

3 Education Expenditures 61

Overall Pattern of Recurrent Public Spending on Education 62

A Closer Look at Recurrent Public Spending on Education in 2001-02 70

Public Spending Per Student by Level and Type of Education 82

Household Spending on Education 97

Issues for Policy Development 100

4 Disparities in Enrollments, Student Flow, and Benefit Incidence 113

Overview of Participation Rates 114

Disparities in Student Flow Patterns in Primary Education 119

Distribution of Public Spending on Education 126

Issues for Policy Development 130

5 Service Delivery in Primary and Secondary Education 139

Overview of the Network of Schools 139

Selected Characteristics of Schools 145

Staffing Patterns 147

Teacher Allocation across Government Schools 154

Economies of Scale in Service Delivery 158

Student Achievement 163

Issues for Policy Development 172

6 Aspects of the Market and Nonmarket Benefits of Schooling 181

Employment Patterns and Workers' Educational Attainment 182

The Market Returns to Education 185

The Impact of Education on Poverty and Nonmarket Outcomes 191

Issues for Policy Development 194

Technical Note 1 Preparation of the Data on Current Public Expenditure on Education in Ethiopia 201

Technical Note 2 Estimating Student Flow Profiles 207

Technical Note 3 Selected Studies on Rates of Return to Education in Ethiopia 221

1 Low Rates of Entry to Grade 1 and Survival to Grade 4, Especially in Rural Areas, despite Unambiguous Overall Improvement since 1993-94 xxviii

2 High Teacher Cost Leads to Adverse Tradeoff against Other School Inputs in Ethiopia xxxiii

3 Scope Exists for Increasing the Efficiency of Time Use by Teachers beyond Grade 4 xxxvi

4 Possible Indicators for Monitoring Progress in Primary Education in Ethiopia xxxvii

5 Urban-Rural Disparities in Primary School Participation are Especially Wide in Ethiopia xxxviii

6 Primary Schools are Still Too Inaccessible for Many Children in Rural Ethiopia xxxix

7 Incompleteness of Instructional Program Characterizes Many Rural Primary Schools xli

8 The Direct Cost of Primary Schooling Can Be Significant for the Poorest Families xlii

1.1 Selected Population Characteristics, Ethiopia, 1984 to 1999-2000 5

1.2 Selected Health Indicators, Ethiopia, 1984 to 1999-2000 6

1.3 Percentage of Children below 15 Years of Age Who Have Lost One or Both Parents, Ethiopia and Other African Countries, circa 1999 8

1.4 Sources of Recent Economic Growth, Ethiopia, 1992-93 to 1999-2000 10

1.5 Trends in Overall Government Revenues, Ethiopia, 1980-81 to 2001-02 13

1.6 Trends in Total Government Expenditure, Ethiopia, 1980-81 to 2001-02 14

1.7 Trends in Public Spending on Education, Ethiopia, 1980-81 to 2001-02 17

2.1 Enrollments by Level in Government and Nongovernment Institutions, Ethiopia, 1967-68 to 2001-02 26

2.2 Number of Students by Type and Level of Education, Ethiopia, 2001-02 31

2.3 Primary Gross Enrollment Ratios (GER), Ethiopia, 1993-94 to 2001-02 37

2.4 Three Indicators of Entry to Grade 1, Ethiopia, 1993-94 to 2000-01 43

2.5 Cohort Survival Rates Using Different Estimation Methods, Ethiopia, 2000-01 46

2.6 Composite Cohort Survival Rates and Intercycle Transition Rates, Ethiopia, 1993-94 and circa 2000-01 47

2.7 Repetition Rates and Share of Readmitted Students among Repeaters, Ethiopia, 1993-93 and 2002-03 52

2.8 Efficiency of Student Flow in Primary Education, Ethiopia, 1993-94 and 2001-02 55

2.9 Enrollments in Grades 8-12 in Government and Nongovernment Schools, Ethiopia, 1999-2000 to 2002-03 57

2.10 Possible Indicators for Monitoring Progress in Primary Education in Ethiopia 59

3.1 Regional Distribution of School-Age Population and Recurrent Public Spending on Education, Ethiopia, 1993-94 to 2001-02 63

3.2 Recurrent Public Education Spending Trends and Composition by Subsector, Ethiopia, 1993-94 to 2001-02 66

3.3 Regional Recurrent Spending on Education, and Amount and Share of Spending on Administration, Ethiopia, 2001-02 68

3.4 Regional Recurrent Spending on Primary, Secondary, and Technical 69

3.5 Distribution of Teachers in Government Schools by Level of Teaching Assigned, Certification, and Average Age, Ethiopia, circa 2002 71

3.6 Average Annual Teacher Remuneration and Aggregate Spending on Teachers and Administrative Staff in Government Schools, Ethiopia, 2001-02 73

3.7 Number of Academic and Administrative Staff, Their Average Remuneration and Aggregate Wage Bill in Teacher Training and Higher Education, Ethiopia, 2001-02 74

3.8 Recurrent Public Spending on Education by Function and Level, Ethiopia, 2001-02 76

3.9 Recurrent Spending on Primary and Secondary Education across Regions, Ethiopia, 2001-02 79

3.10 Teacher Wages and Educational Supplies as a Percentage of Recurrent Spending in Primary and Secondary Education across Regions. Ethiopia. 2001-02 80

3.11 Public Recurrent Spending Per Student by Level and Type of Education 83

3.12 Public Spending Per Student in Government Primary and Secondary Schools across Regions, Ethiopia, 2001-02 86

3.13 Estimates of Teaching Loads by Level of Education, Ethiopia, 2001-02 89

3.14 Sources of Differences in Spending Per Student in Government Primary and Secondary Education, Ethiopia, 2001-02 91

3.15 Sources of Regional Differences in Spending Per Student in Grades 1-4 and Grades 5-8 Across Regions, Ethiopia, 2001-02 93

3.16 Sources of Differences in Government Spending Per Student across Cycles in Primary Education in Each Region, Ethiopia, 2001-02 96

3.17 Household Spending on Education by Level, Ethiopia, circa 2000 98

3.18 Aggregate Household Spending on Education, Ethiopia, 1999-00 99

3.19 National Spending on Education, Ethiopia, 1999-2000 100

3.20 Household Spending Per Child in Primary School by Household Consumption 103

3.21 Public Recurrent Spending Per Primary Pupil, Teacher Wages, Pupil-Teacher Ratios, and Spending on Inputs Other Than Teachers, Ethiopia and Selected World Regions, circa 2000 103

3.22 Teacher's Weekly Teaching Hours by Level of Education, Ethiopia (2001-02) and Other Countries (1999) 105

3.23 Teacher's Weekly Teaching Hours by Level of Education, Ethiopia (2001-2) and Other Countries (1999) 107

4.1 Gross Enrollment Ratios by Region, Ethiopia, 1993-94 and 2001-02 114

4.2 Gross Enrollment Ratios by Locality, Gender, and Wealth, Ethiopia, 1999-2000 116

4.3 Female Share of Primary and Secondary Enrollments across Regions 118

4.4 Percentage of Children Ages 7-14 Currently Enrolled in Primary School by Orphanhood Status, Ethiopia, 1999-2000 118

4.5 Student Flow Indicators in Primary Education by Gender 120

4.6 Social Selectivity in Primary Education according to Three Cross-Sectional Indicators of Access, Ethiopia and Sub-Saharan African Countries, circa 2000 125

4.7 Benefit Incidence of Public Spending on Education, Ethiopia, circa 2000 129

4.8 Share of Public Spending on Education Benefiting the Poorest and Richest Population Quintiles, Ethiopia (1999-2000) and Other Countries (1990s) 131

4.9 Distribution of Children Ages 7-14 and Their School Participation Rates by Distance to Nearest Primary School, Ethiopia, 2000 132

4.10 Percentage of Children Ages 7 to 14 Years Currently Registered for School, by Mother's Native Language, Ethiopia, 2000 136

5.1 Distribution of Primary and

Secondary Students and Schools 140

5.2 Distribution of Government and Nongovernment Schools 142

5.3 Percentage Distribution of Government and Nongovernment Primary Schools by Date of Establishment, Ethiopia, 2001-02 143

5.4 Distribution of Government Primary Schools by Highest Grade 144

5.5 Prevalence of Double Shifting and Section and School Sizes of Government 145

5.6 Selected Indicators of Conditions in Government and Nongovernment 148

5.7 Administrative Staff Allocation and Staffing Ratios across Primary 148

5.8 Distribution of Teachers by Gender and Qualification in Government and Nongovernment Primary and Secondary Schools, Ethiopia, 2001-02 150

5.9 Pupil-Teacher Ratios by Level of Instruction in Government and Nongovernment Schools across Regions, Ethiopia, 2001-02 152

5.10 Percentage Distribution of Government and Nongovernment Schools by Range of Pupil-Teacher ratios, Ethiopia, 2001-02 154

5.11 Regression Estimates of the Relation between Numbers of Teachers and Students across Government Schools by Level of Instruction, Ethiopia, 2001-02 156

5.12 Regression Estimates of the Relation between Total Costs and Enrollments across Government Schools, Ethiopia, 2001-02 161

5.13 Pass Rates on National Examinations at Grades 8, 10, and 12 by Region and Sex, Ethiopia, circa 2000 164

5.14 Grade 8 Examination Results for a Sample of Pupils in Government Primary Schools in Oromiya Region, Ethiopia, 2001-02 168

5.15 Correlates of Average Grade 8 Examination Scores, Oromiya, 2001-02 170

5.16 Pupil-Teacher and Pupil-Section Ratios and Teaching Loads Relative to Pupils' Instructional Hours in Urban and Rural Government Primary Schools, Ethiopia, 1994-95 and 2002-03 175

5.17 Average Weekly Teaching Loads by Teacher Certification and Grade 176

5.18 Pupil-Teacher and Pupil-Section Ratios and Teaching Loads Relative to Pupils' Instructional Hours in Urban and Rural Government Primary Schools, by Region, Ethiopia, 2002-03 177

6.1 Trends in the Economically Active Population 182

6.2 Labor Force Participation by School-Age Children, Ethiopia, 2001 183

6.3 Distribution of Employment by Economic Sector, Ethiopia, 1994, 1999 and 2001 184

6.4 Distribution of Employment by Type, Ethiopia, 1994, 1999 and 2001 185

6.5 Educational Attainment of Workers Aged 10 and Above, Ethiopia, 1994, 1999 and 2001 186

6.6 Regression Estimates of the Effect of Education 187

6.7 Education's Influence on Fertilizer Use, Ethiopia, 1994 188

6.8 Monthly Mean Earnings by Level of Education, Ethiopia, 20011 189

6.9 Private Rates of Returns to Education by Level of Education, Ethiopia, 2001 190

6.10 Incidence of Poverty by Gender and Education 191

6.11 Regression Estimates of the Impact of Education on Poverty, Ethiopia, 1999 192

6.12 Fertility Rate and Number of Children Per Woman 193

6.13 Parental Education and Child Malnutrition, Ethiopia, 1995-98 194

6.14 Unemployment Rate by Educational Attainment and Age, Ethiopia, 2001 195

6.15 Social Rates of Returns to Education in Ethiopia, 2001 196

T2.1 Number of Students and Repeaters, Girls and Boys, Ethiopia, 1992-93 to 2002-03 208

T2.2 Number of Nonrepeaters, Boys and Girls, Ethiopia, 1993-94 to 2002-03 211

T2.3 Pseudo-Cohort Survival Rates, Ethiopia, 1993-94 to 1999-00 212

T2.4 Example Calculation of Promotion, Repetition, and Dropout Rates 212

T2.5 Promotion, Repetition, Dropout Rates, Ethiopia, 1993-94 to 2001-02 213

T2.6 Number of Nonrepeaters, Boys and Girls, Ethiopia, 1993-94 to 2002-03 219

T3.1 Selected Studies on the Returns to Education in Ethiopia 222

T3.2 Returns to Education in Ethiopia, Computed Using Regression Coefficients in Krishnan, Selaissie, and Dercon (1998) 225

T3.3 Estimation of Earnings Model Based on Data 226

T3.4 Summary of the Rates of Returns to Education, Ethiopia 227

A1.1 GDP and Overall Government Revenues, Ethiopia, 1981-2002 230

A1.2 Evolution of Revenue-Sharing Formula, Ethiopia, 1994-95 to 2001-02 231

A1.3 Government Expenditures, Ethiopia, 1981-2002 232

A1.4 Current and Capital Government Spending on Education, Ethiopia, 1980-81 to 2001-02 233

A1.5 Capital Spending on Education, Ethiopia, 1993-94 to 2001-02 234

A2.1 Number of Participants in Nonformal Education by Age Group and Region, Ethiopia, 1999-2002 235

A2.2 Percentage of Population Ever Enrolled in Grade 1 at Each Age, Ethiopia, 1996 to 2000 236

A2.3 Cohort Completion Rates 236

A3.1 Recurrent Public Spending on Education by Region, Ethiopia, 1993-94 to 2001-02 237

A3.2 Current Expenditures by Function, Ethiopia, 1993-94 to 2001-02 (1986 E.C. to 1994 E.C.) 238

A3.3 Recurrent Spending by Subsector and Region, Ethiopia, 1993-94 to 2001-02 239

A3.4 Earnings Function for Teachers in Grades 1-12 in Government Schools, Oromiya, 2002-03 246

A3.5 Teacher Salary Scale in Primary and Secondary Education, Ethiopia 247

A3.6 Data for Decomposition of Spending Per Student in Government Primary 248

A4.1 Percentage of the Population Ever Enrolled in Grade 1 at Each Age 250

A4.2 Student Flow Indicators in Primary Education across Regions, Ethiopia, circa 2000 251

A4.3 Probit Estimates of Changes in the Probability of Being Registered for School among Children Ages 7 to 14 Years Using Data from the 1999/2000 WMS/HICES 252

A4.4 Estimates of Changes in the Probability of Currently Attending School, Working in a "Job," or Doing Unpaid Housework in Last Seven Days, Using Data from the 1999 Labor Force Survey 257

A4.5 Estimates of Changes in the Probability that Child has Ever Attended School Based on Data from the 2000 Ethiopia Demographic and Health Survey 263

A5.1 Percentage Distribution Government and Nongovernment Primary and Secondary Schools in Urban and Rural Areas by Instructional Program, Ethiopia 2001-02 268

A5.2 Distribution of Section Sizes by Level of Instruction 268

A5.3 Average Section Sizes of Primary and Secondary Classes in Government and Nongovernment Schools by Locality and Region, Ethiopia, 2001-02 269

A5.4 Regression Estimates of the Relation between Numbers of Teachers and Pupils across Primary and Secondary Schools, Ethiopia, 2001-02 270

A5.5 Regression Estimates of the Relation between Numbers of Teachers and Pupils in Government Primary Schools by Region, Ethiopia, 2001-02 272

A5.6 Primary School Construction Costs, Ethiopia, 2002 272

A5.7 Number of Candidates Who Took the National Grade 8, 10, and 12 Examinations by Region, Ethiopia, circa 2000 273

A5.8 Results from the 2000 Ethiopia National Baseline Assessment on Grade 4 and Grade 8 Student Achievement, Ethiopia, 2000 273

A6.1 Labor Force Participation by School-Age Children, Ethiopia, 1999 274

A6.2 Mincerian Earnings functions, Ethiopia, 2001 274

1 Historically Unprecedented Growth in Primary School Enrollments since 1993-4 xxiii

2 Persistent Deterioration of Pedagogical Conditions in Schools since 1994 xxiv

3 Especially Rapid Deterioration of Pedagogical Conditions in Rural Schools since 1994 xxv

4 A Conceptual Framework for Education Policy Development and System Management xxvi

5 Recurrent Spending on Education Has Risen, but Share of Primary Education Still Needs to Grow xxx

6 Cross-Country Data Show a Predictable Tradeoff between Teacher Cost and the Pupil-Teacher Ratio xxxiv

7 Allocation of Teachers across Government Primary Schools is Highly Random in Ethiopia xl

8 An Example of the Weak Link between Spending per Primary Pupil and Examination Scores xlvi

1.1 Adult HIV/AIDS Prevalence Rates and Orphanhood among Primary School-Age Children, Ethiopia and Selected East African Countries, circa 2000 9

1.2 Real Gross Domestic Product Per Capita, Ethiopia, 1960-2002 10

1.3 Relation between Government Revenues and Current Spending, Ethiopia, 1980-81 to 2001-02 16

1.4 Relation between Overall Government Spending and Government Spending on Education, Ethiopia, 1980-81 to 2001-02 19

1.5 Trends in Government Overall Recurrent Spending and Education Recurrent Spending, Ethiopia, 1993-94 to 2001-02 20

1.6 Public Recurrent Spending on Education and Per Capita GDP, Ethiopia and Other Countries, circa 2000 21

2.1 Structure of the Ethiopian Education System in 2003-04 24

2.2 Enrollments in Grades 1-12, Ethiopia, 1967-2002 27

2.3 Enrollments in Regular Programs in Higher Education, Ethiopia, 1985-2002 28

2.4 Share of Students in Nongovernment Establishments, Ethiopia, 1967-68 to 2001-02 29

2.5 Share of Fee-Paying or Nongovernment-Financed Students in Primary and Secondary Education, Ethiopia and Other Countries, circa 2000 35

2.6 Share of Privately Financed Tertiary Students, Ethiopia, 2001, and Other Countries, 1999 36

2.7 Primary Gross Enrollment Ratio (GER), Ethiopia and Other Countries, circa 2000 38

2.8 Secondary Gross Enrollment Ratio (GER), Ethiopia, Selected African Countries and Country Group Averages, circa 2000 39

2.9 Relation between GDP Per Capita and Coverage in Higher Education 40

2.10 Percentage Literate among Adults Ages 15-49, by Highest Grade Attended, Ethiopia, 2000 41

2.11 New Entrants to Grade 1 and Percentage Increase from Previous Year, Ethiopia, 1993-94 to 2000-01 42

2.12 Pseudo-Cohort Survival Rates in Primary and Secondary Education, Ethiopia, 1993-94 to 1998-99 45

2.13 Grade-Specific Completion Rates, Ethiopia, 1995-96 and circa 2000 50

2.14 Relation between Grade 6 Cohort Completion Rates and Per Capita GDP, African Countries, circa 2000 51

2.15 Repetition Rates in Primary and Secondary Education, Ethiopia, 1992-93 to 2001-02 53

2.16 Repeaters as a Percentage of Enrollments in Primary Education, Ethiopia and Other Low-Income Countries, circa 2000 54

2.17 Efficiency of Student Flow in Grades 1-5 in Ethiopia and Other African Countries, circa 2000 56

3.1 Trends in Recurrent Spending on Selected Components of Education 68

3.2 Relation between Public Spending on Primary Education and Completion Rates, Ethiopia and Other Countries, circa 2000 81

3.3 Spending Per Pupil in Primary Education, Ethiopia and Other African Countries, circa 2000 84

3.4 Estimated Teachers' Weekly Teaching Hours in Government Primary and Secondary Schools, Ethiopia, 2001-02 90

3.5 Household Spending as a Percentage of Total National Spending on Education, Ethiopia, 1999-2000, and Other Countries, circa 1998 102

3.6 Relation between Teacher Remuneration and Pupil-Teacher Ratio in Primary Education among Low-Income Countries, circa 2000 104

3.7 Where Graduates of Teacher Training Work 106

4.1 Female Share of Total Enrollments by Level, Ethiopia, 1967-68 to 2001-02 117

4.2 Cohort Entry Rate to Grade 1 and Completion Rates in Grades 4 and 8 across Regions, Ethiopia, circa 2000 121

4.3 Cohort Entry Rate to Grade 1 and Completion Rates in Grades 4 and 8 across Regions, Ethiopia, circa 2000 122

4.4 Cohort Entry Rates to Grade 1 in Urban and Rural Areas 123

4.5 Socioeconomic Parity in Primary Schooling in Ethiopia 126

4.6 Share of Cumulative Public Spending on Education, Benefiting the 10 Percent Best Educated in a Generation, Ethiopia and Other African Countries, circa 1998 128

5.1 Percentage Distribution of Government and Nongovernment Primary and Secondary Schools by Region, Ethiopia, 2001-02 141

5.2 Average Size of Enrollments in Government and Nongovernment Primary and Secondary Schools by Locality and Region, Ethiopia, 2001-02 147

5.3 Relation between Gender Parity in Grade 6 Completion and Female Share of Teachers in Primary Education, Ethiopia, 2001-02, and Other African Countries, circa 2000 151

5.4 Primary School Pupil-Teacher Ratios in Ethiopia, 2001-02, and Other Countries, circa 2000 153

5.5 Relation between Numbers of Students and Teachers across Government 155

5.6 Randomness in Teacher Deployment Across Schools in Ethiopia, 2001-02, and Other African Countries, circa 2000 158

5.7 Randomness in Teacher Deployment across Government Primary Schools by Region, Ethiopia, 2001-02 159

5.8 Relation between Cost Per Student and Size of Enrollments across Government Schools, Ethiopia, 2001-02 160

5.9 Size Distribution of Government Primary Schools and Recurrent Cost Per Pupil by School Size, Ethiopia, 2001-02 161

5.10 Size Distribution of Government Secondary Schools and Recurrent Cost Per Student by Size of School, Ethiopia, 2001-02 162

5.11 Relation between Spending Per Pupil and Mean Grade 8 Examination Score across A Sample of Primary Schools in Oromiya Region, Ethiopia, 2001-02 171

5.12 Trends in Pupil-Teacher and Pupil-Section Ratios and in Nonsalary Public Spending Per Primary and Secondary Student, Ethiopia, 1990-2001 173

5.13 Pupil-Teacher and Pupil-Section Ratios in Urban 174

5.14 Relation between Relative Teaching Loads in Rural and Urban Schools 177

T2.1 Example Calculation in the Reconstructed-Cohort Method 215

T2.2 Computing Survival Rates Using the UNESCO Reconstructed-Cohort Method with Repetition Algorithm Applied until All Repeaters in Each Grade Exit the System 216

T2.3 Computing Survival Rates Using the UNESCO Reconstructed-Cohort Method with Repetition Algorithm Applied Only Twice Per Grade 217

T2.4 Example Calculation in the Composite Cohort Method 218

A2.1 Probability of Being Literate among Adults with Six Years of Primary Schooling 276

A3.1 Trends in Average Teacher Salary in Primary Education, Selected World Regions, 1975-2000 276

A4.1 Cumulative Distribution of a Hypothetical Cohort by Education Attainment and of the Public Spending Benefiting It 277

A5.1 Percentage of Government and Nongovernment Schools Serving Two or More Shifts of Students by Locality and Region, Ethiopia, 2001-02 278

A5.2 Relation between Enrollments and Number of Teachers in Grades 1-5 and Grades 5-8 across Government Schools, Ethiopia, 2001-02 279

Box 1.1 Ethiopia at a Glance 3.

Notes:

Includes bibliographical references (pages 281-285).

ISBN:

0821362267

OCLC:

59756095