Zoological physics : quantitative models of body design, actions, and physical limitations of animals / Boye K. Ahlborn.

Format:

Book

Author/Creator:

Ahlborn, Boye.

Language:

English

Subjects (All):

Zoology--Mathematical models.

Zoology.

Physics.

Mathematical models.

Physical Description:

xix, 430 pages : illustrations ; 24 cm

Place of Publication:

Berlin ; New York : Springer, [2004]

Summary:

Zoological Physics presents a physicist's view of life. The primary life functions of animals, such as eating, growing, reproducing and getting around all depend on motion: motion of food into the organism, motion of materials through the body, motion of limbs, and motion of the entire body through water, air, and on land. These activities are controlled by internal information stored in the genes or generated in the brain and by external information gathered by the senses: predominantly eyes, and ears. This book models these life functions with the tools of physics. It is aimed at students of life science, engineering and physics, but will also appeal to other readers with a general interest in animals.

Contents:

1. Life: Information, Matter, and Energy 1

1.1 Physics and Life 1

1.2 The Hourglass of Change 5

1.2.1 Differences and Chemistry Make Things Happen 5

1.2.2 Life and Entropy 8

1.3 Energy, Metabolic Rate, and Allometry 10

1.3.1 Empirical Determination of Metabolic Rates 10

1.3.2 Allometry 13

1.3.3 The Benefits of Large Bodies 15

1.4 Zoological Physics Modeling 17

1.4.1 Where Zoological Physics Fits in 18

1.4.2 The Warp and Weft of Zoological Physics 19

1.4.3 Strength and Limits of Physical Models 20

2. Energy and Temperature 25

2.1 Parameters of the Energy Chain 26

2.1.1 Temperature 27

2.1.2 Forms of Energy and Power 28

2.1.3 How Animals Do Work and Generate Mechanical Energy 29

2.1.4 Internal Energy, and Heat 30

2.2 The Conservation of Energy 33

2.2.1 The First Law of Thermodynamics 34

2.2.2 Energy Analysis 35

2.2.3 Compound Efficiency of the Energy Conversion Chain 36

2.2.4 Optimum Rates 39

2.3 Thermal Problems of Warm Blooded Animals 40

2.3.1 Temperature Control and Heat Fluxes 40

2.3.2 Heat Losses by Conduction 42

2.3.3 Surface Heat Transfer 45

2.3.4 Convection 46

2.3.5 How to Live with Permanently Cold Feet 47

2.3.6 Radiation 48

2.3.7 Phase Changes and Evaporation Cooling 50

2.3.8 Managing the Flow of Heat 51

2.4 How Thermodynamics Sets Limits for Life 52

2.4.1 A Place Called Home 53

2.4.2 Why Bigger is Better in a Cold Ocean 55

2.4.3 Why Birds Can't Be Smaller Than Bees 58

2.4.4 Water, the Magic Stuff 59

2.5 Other Physical Quantities 61

3. Form and Forces 67

3.1 How to Deal with Forces 68

3.1.1 Forces in Static Equilibrium 68

3.1.2 Compression and Tension 69

3.1.3 The Free Body Diagram 70

3.2 Muscles and Tendons 71

3.2.1 Muscle Force 71

3.2.2 A Simple Model of the Muscle 73

3.2.3 The Muscle Cross Bridge Cycle 74

3.2.4 Muscle Efficiency 76

3.2.5 Cold and Warm Muscles 77

3.2.6 Muscle Connections 78

3.3 Static Forces That Animals May Encounter 78

3.3.1 Pressure 79

3.3.2 Buoyancy 81

3.3.3 Elastic Forces 82

3.3.4 Electrostatic Force 84

3.3.5 Capillary Forces, a Form of Surface Tension 85

3.3.6 The Maximum Size of Water Striders 87

3.3.7 Friction 87

3.4 Dynamic Forces 88

3.4.1 Bernoulli Force 89

3.4.2 Centrifugal Force 90

3.4.3 Drag 90

3.4.4 The Minimum Compound Drag 93

3.4.5 Ventilation Drag 95

3.4.6 Lift Force 96

3.4.7 Magnus Effect 97

3.4.8 Jet Thrust Force 97

3.5 Simple Body Forms from Skin Bags to Bones 97

3.5.1 Animals Without Bones

Giant Caterpillars? 98

3.5.2 Elephant Trunks and Octopus Arms 100

3.5.3 The Spiral Structure of Filaments in Nematodes 101

3.5.4 Hard Shell Critters 101

3.5.5 The Invention of Bones 102

3.6 Large Structures with Bones 103

3.6.1 Chewing: Pressure Amplification and Lethal Bananas 103

3.6.2 Triangular Elements in Large Structures 105

3.6.3 Vertebrae Construction, Bridges with Cable Support 105

3.6.4 Elastic Elements as Support Structures 106

3.6.5 The Secrete of Posture 107

3.6.6 Impediment by Gravitation on Other Planets 109

3.7 Scaling Up 109

3.7.1 Geometric Scaling 110

3.7.2 Weakest Link Scaling 110

3.7.3 Maximum Tension Scaling 112

3.7.4 Elastic Similarity Scaling 113

3.8 Strong Materials in Biology 113

3.8.1 Surface Energy [gamma] and Breaking Strength 114

3.8.2 The Strength of Real Materials 115

3.8.3 Why Are Spider Silk and Kevlar so Strong? 117

3.8.4 The Optimum Stretch of Spider Silk 118

3.8.5 The Dragline as Safety Line 120

4. Fluids in the Body 127

4.1 Motion in Concentration Gradients 128

4.1.1 Diffusion 128

4.1.2 Osmosis 130

4.1.3 The Size of Body Cells 130

4.2 Convection and Pipe Flow 133

4.2.1 Pipe Flow and Bernoulli Equation 134

4.2.2 Laminar and Turbulent Flow 136

4.2.3 Pressure Drop in Blood Vessels 138

4.2.4 Flow Control in Blood Vessels 139

4.2.5 Strokes 140

4.2.6 Why Turbulent Flow Is Bad 140

4.3 The Highway System' of the Body 141

4.3.1 Pressure and Velocity in the Arteries 142

4.3.2 The Hemoglobin Connection 143

4.3.3 How Much Oxygen Does the Body Need? 144

4.3.4 How Many Capillaries? 147

4.3.5 Laminar Flow in the Aorta 147

4.3.6 The Power and Frequency of the Heart 148

4.3.7 The Ventilation System 149

4.3.8 Breathing 151

4.3.9 Blood Circulation Time 153

4.4 From Digestion to Propagation 153

5. Animals in Motion 159

5.1 Kinematics of the Motion 159

5.1.1 Translational and Rotational Motion 160

5.1.2 How to Manipulate Rotational Motion 162

5.1.3 How the Heron Starts Flying 163

5.1.4 Linear Motion: Predators Fast Food 164

5.1.5 Connection of Angular and Linear Velocities 165

5.1.6 Relative Motion 167

5.1.7 Lifetimes and Biological Periods 167

5.2 Dynamics of the Moving Animal 170

5.2.1 How Animals Get Going

the Resultant Force 171

5.2.2 Landing on Your Feet 172

5.2.3 The Jumping Flea 173

5.2.4 Forces in Angular Motion 174

5.2.5 Moving Through Fluids 175

5.2.6 Terminal Velocity of a Small Insect Falling in Still Air 176

5.2.7 Rocket Propulsion 177

5.2.8 Masters of Acceleration 178

5.3 Locomotion and Energy 179

5.3.1 Energy Analysis of Moving Objects 180

5.3.2 Cost of Transport and Resistive Force 180

5.3.3 Saving Mechanical Power by Slender Limbs 182

5.3.4 Spring Loaded Animals 183

5.3.5 Energy Storage in Elastic Body Components 184

5.4 Continuous Motion 186

6. Locomotion 191

6.1 Periodic Motion and Resonance 191

6.1.2 Resonance, a Principle to Reduce Energy Consumption 194

6.2 Locomotion in the Water by Flippers and Tails 197

6.2.1 How Fast Are Swimmers? 198

6.2.2 Propulsion Strategies at Higher Speeds 199

6.2.3 Swimming at Slow Speeds 200

6.2.4 A Model for Fish Propulsion from Rest 201

6.3 On the Wing 205

6.3.1 Generation of Lift 206

6.3.2 The Minimum Flight Velocity 209

6.3.3 Why Big Birds Cannot Fly 211

6.3.4 The Hovering Flight of Insects and Humming Birds 212

6.3.5 Flapping Flight 214

6.4 Locomotion with Arms and Legs 216

6.4.1 The Arms Race of Tree Dwellers 217

6.4.2 Walking 218

6.4.3 Running 220

6.4.4 The Transition from Walking to Running 224

6.4.5 Why T-Rex Was No Endurance Runner 225

6.5 From Efficient Use of Energy to the Smarter Use of Information 226

7. Waves, the Carriers of Information 231

7.1 External and Internal Information 232

7.1.1 From Genes to Brain and Senses 232

7.1.2 Organic and Technical Evolution 234

7.1.3 The Information and Material Hierarchies 234

7.2 Contact and Distant Senses 235

7.2.1 Signals and Sensor Sensitivities 235

7.2.2 What Is Extracted from the Background? 238

7.3 Wave Fields 239

7.3.1 Some Properties of Waves 240

7.3.2 Amplitudes, Wavelength, and How Things Move in Waves 241

7.3.3 The Inverse Square Law 243

7.3.4 Reduction of Intensity by Absorption ([lambda double greater-than sign] D) 245

7.3.5 Scattering 247

7.4 How Waves Change Their Direction 248

7.4.1 The Phase Velocity 249

7.4.2 The Phase Velocity in a Compressible Medium 251

7.4.3 Refraction 252

7.4.4 Total Internal Reflection 252

7.4.5 Light Pipes and Wave Guides 253

7.4.6 Sound Pipes: The Sofar Channel and Ground Effect 254

7.4.7 The Lateral Spread of Wave Fronts 255

7.5 Information Background 257

8. Light, Abundant Information 261

8.1 Facts of Light 261

8.1.1 Photons and Waves 262

8.1.2 Why Light Waves Can Produce Sharp Images 263

8.1.3 Intensity, Wavelength, and Photon Numbers 264

8.1.4 Biological Effects of Different Wavelengths 265

8.1.5 How Many Photons Make an Image? 266

8.2 Imaging Principles 267

8.2.1 Primitive Radiation Detectors 268

8.2.2 Pinhole Cameras 269

8.2.3 Imaging by Lenses 270

8.2.4 Eyes in Air and Under

Water 271

8.2.5 The F-Number 274

8.2.6 The Diffraction Limit: How Sharp Are the Images of Lens Eyes? 275

8.2.7 Image Resolution of Lens Eyes 276

8.2.8 Why Imaging Cuts Down on Background Noise 277

8.3 The Human Eye 278

8.3.1 Geometry and Physiology 278

8.3.2 Receptors of the Eye, Sensitivities, and Field of View 279

8.3.3 Resolution of the Human Eye 281

8.3.4 Aging of Eye Components 281

8.4 Animal Eyes 282

8.4.1 Pinhole Camera Eyes for Heat Radiation 283

8.4.2 Spider Eyes 285

8.4.3 Fish Eyes 285

8.4.4 Big Eyes of the Deep 287

8.4.5 Non Spherical, Large Aperture Lens Eyes of Trilobites 289

8.5 Facet Eyes 290

8.5.1 The Principle of Light Pipes 290

8.5.2 Insect Eyes 292

8.5.3 Intensity Attenuation by Frustrated Internal Reflection 292

8.6 Unwanted and Wanted Visibility 294

8.6.1 How Animals Make Perfect Reflectors Using Interference 294

8.6.2 Improving the Contrast with Dielectric Mirrors 296

8.6.3 Hiding in the Water 296

8.6.4 Ghosts of the Deep with Anti Reflection Coatings 298

8.6.5 Unmasking the Ghosts with Polarized Light 299

8.6.6 More About Color 299

8.7 The Active Production of Light, and Limits of Seeing 300

8.7.1 Bioluminescence 300

8.7.2 Signal to Noise Reduction Through Binocular Seeing 301

8.7.3 Limitation of Seeing and How the Brain Sets You into the Picture 302

8.7.4 High Resolution of Optical Signals Is Not Always Good Enough 303

9. Sound 309

9.1 Signals of Sound, Noise, and Language 310

9.1.1 Phenomena Associated with Sound 310

9.1.2 Parameters of Sound 311

9.1.3 Sound Quality 312

9.1.4 Fourier Analysis 314

9.2 Intensity and Impedance 315

9.2.1 Intensity and Particle Velocity 315

9.2.2 Pressure, Impedance, and Velocity Fluctuations 316

9.2.3 The Decibel Scale 319

9.2.4 Beats 320

9.2.5 Sound Absorption, Scattering and Refraction in Free Space 321

9.2.6 Impedance Mismatch Between Air and Water 323

9.2.7 Hearing and Voice Transmission in Air 325

9.3 Ears 326

9.3.1 Principles of Amplification in Mammal Ears 327

9.3.2 Pinna and Middle Ear Amplification 328

9.3.3 Inner Ear Frequency Analysis 329

9.3.4 The Ear of an Aquatic Mammal 331

9.3.5 Lateral Lines of Fish 332

9.3.6 The Sensitivity of Ears 333

9.4 Voices and Sound Production 334

9.4.1 How Sound Is Shed off a Sender 335

9.4.2 Resonators 336

9.4.3 Oscillations of Elastic Solids 337

9.4.4 Oscillations of Air Volumes 338

9.4.5 Frequencies of Periodically Interrupted Motion 340

9.5 Voices 342

9.5.1 The Human Voice 342

9.5.2 The Frequency Spectrum of Speech 344

9.5.3 The Sound of Frogs 346

9.5.4 The Sound of Snapping Shrimp: Cavitation 346

9.5.5 Insect Sounds 347

9.5.6 Sperm Whale Sound 347

9.6 Information Extracted from Ambient Sound 347

9.6.1 Direction, Echoes, and Shadows 348

9.6.2 Signal Spectrum Recognition - Who Is There? 349

9.6.3 Distance and Directions of Sound Sources 349

9.6.4 Delay Time Measurements 351

9.7 Sound Images 353

9.7.1 Little Energy Goes a Long Way Traveling as Information 353

9.7.2 Delphinid Acoustic Apparatus 354

9.7.3 Echo Location of Bats 355

9.7.4 How Bats Know the Speed of Their Prey 356

9.8 Sound, the Social Sense 359

9.8.1 Comparison of Light and Sound Images 359

9.8.2 Why Sound Images Are Not Always Good Enough 360

10. Body Electronics and Magnetic Senses 365

10.1 The Electrical Machinery of Life 365

10.1.1 Life Started in Leyden Jars 366

10.1.2 Forces Created by Electric Fields 367

10.1.3 Moving Charges into and out of Cells 368

10.2 Conduction of Nerve Pulses 371

10.2.1 Gates in Cells 371

10.2.2 Moving Charges by Mechanical Stresses: Piezo Effect 374

10.2.3 Electrical Signals of Muscle Activities 374

10.3 Passive Use of Electrical Fields 374

10.3.1 The 6th Sense: Electrical Detection of Prey 375

10.3.2 Electrical Detectors of Fish 376

10.3.3 Platypus 376

10.4 The Active Use of Electric Fields 377

10.4.1 Fields and Signals 377

10.4.2 Living Batteries and Voltage Sources 379

10.5 Navigation by Magnetic Fields 380

10.5.1 The Origin of Magnetic Fields 380

10.5.2 The Earth's Magnetic Field 381

10.5.3 The Magnetic Sense 382

10.5.4 Magneto-Tactic Bacteria with Ideal Compass Needles 383

10.5.5 Pigeons Trout, Turtles, and Dolphins 384

10.5.6 Life on Mars? 385

10.5.7 Orientation by u x B in the Earth Field 385

11. Better Physics: The Trifle of Difference 389

11.1 Physics Enables Within the Framework of Biological Restrictions 391

11.1.1 Physics Concepts 391

11.1.2 Fitness Landscape Molded by Physics 394

11.1.3 Examples of How Physical Principles Are Utilized 395

11.1.4 Non-Dimensional Numbers and Scaling Relations 398

11.1.5 Co-Evolution 399

11.2 Optima and Limits 400

11.2.1 Size and Mass Ranges 400

11.2.2 Living Space Ranges 401

11.2.3 Information Limits 402

11.2.4 Energy Transfer Time Limits 402

11.2.5 Optima 403

11.2.6 The Phase Space Arena of Organisms 404

11.3 Overcoming Limitations: The Workshop of Evolution 405

11.3.1 Measures and Countermeasures 406

11.3.2 New Territory 406

11.4 The Open Door 407

11.4.1 Elements of Zoological Physics Modeling 408

11.4.2 Limitations of Modeling 409

11.4.3 Some Open Questions 409.

Notes:

Includes bibliographical references (pages [419]-422) and index.

ISBN:

3540208461

OCLC:

54029510