Migrant smuggling : illegal migration and organised crime in Australia and the Asia Pacific region / by Andreas Schloenhardt.

Format:

Book

Author/Creator:

Schloenhardt, Andreas.

Series:

Refugees and human rights ; v. 8.

Refugees and human rights ; v. 8

Language:

English

Subjects (All):

Human smuggling--Asia.

Human smuggling.

Human smuggling--Australia.

Human smuggling--Pacific Area.

Organized crime--Asia.

Organized crime.

Organized crime--Australia.

Australia.

Organized crime--Pacific Area.

Pacific Area.

Asia.

Genre:

Academic theses.

Physical Description:

xxvi, 460 pages : illustrations ; 25 cm.

Place of Publication:

Leiden ; Boston, Mass. : Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2003.

Summary:

The subject of this volume is the phenomenon commonly known as 'migrant smuggling' - the criminal offence of illegally transporting migrants across international borders. This study provides a comprehensive analysis of migrant smuggling in Australia and the Asia Pacific region in its different aspects and dimensions. It examines the nature characteristics and magnitude, the causes, conditions and consequences of migrant smuggling, and the inadequacies of existing policies and legislation. It compiles, reviews and analyses existing and proposed legislation at national, regional and international levels. It forwards a set of specific proposals that can be woven into a coherent and comprehensve strategy to prevent and combat illegal migration and organised crime in Australia and the Asia Pacific region more effectively in the 21st century.

Contents:

1.1.1. The IOM Definition of Migrant Smuggling/Trafficking 14

1.1.2. Illegal Migration 15

1.1.2.1. Migrants and migration 15

1.1.2.2. Border crossing 16

1.1.2.3. Illegality of the movement 16

1.1.2.4. Voluntary nature of migrant smuggling 17

1.1.3. Organised Crime 19

1.1.3.1. Smugglers and smuggling organisation 19

1.1.3.2. Profit for the smugglers 20

1.2. The Terminology in International Law 21

1.3. Trafficking in Women and Children 24

Chapter 2 Illegal Migration

2.1. Illegal Migration in the Asia Pacific Region 27

2.1.1. Migration as a Result of Political, Demographic, Socioeconomic and Environmental Factors: The Concept of Push and Pull 27

2.1.1.1. Political factors 28

2.1.1.2. Demographic push factors 32

2.1.1.3. Socioeconomic factors 35

2.1.1.3.1. Survival migration 35

2.1.1.3.2. Opportunity seeking migration 36

2.1.1.3.3. Economic developments in the Asia Pacific region, 1980-2000 37

2.1.1.4. Environmental factors 40

2.1.1.5. Technological developments 41

2.1.2. Migration and Social Networks: The Migration Systems Approach 42

2.1.2.1. Social networks 43

2.1.2.2. Overseas communities and family reunification 44

2.1.2.3. Global economic systems 45

2.2. Illegal Migration and Australia's Immigration Policies 51

2.2.1. Early Immigration Restrictions 52

2.2.1.1. Early developments in Britain 52

2.2.1.2. Australia before Federation 52

2.2.1.3. The Immigration Restriction Act 1901 54

2.2.2. Post-War Australia and the Migration Act 1958 56

2.2.2.1. The World Wars and the refugee crises 56

2.2.2.2. Populate or perish 58

2.2.2.3. The Migration Act 1958 59

2.2.2.4. The 1960s and the end of organised labour migration 59

2.2.3. The Fall of Vietnam and the Boat-People 61

2.2.3.1. The end of the Vietnam War 61

2.2.3.2. Australia and the boat-people 62

2.2.3.3. The 1985 and 1987 review of migration law 66

2.2.4. The Events of 1989 67

2.2.4.1. The end of the Cold War 67

2.2.4.2. The Chinese student revolt 69

2.2.4.3. Responses by receiving countries 70

2.2.4.4. Australia's responses to the 1989 events 71

2.2.4.4.1. The Chinese students 71

2.2.4.4.2. The 1989 reform of migration law 72

2.2.5. Immigration Policies in the 1990s 73

2.2.5.1. The 1991-93 amendments 74

2.2.5.2. 1994-1998 77

2.2.6. Recent Developments: 1999 and after 81

2.2.7. The Tampa Incident and the Pacific Solution 84

Chapter 3 Organised Crime

3.1. Concepts and Characteristics of Organised Crime 93

3.1.1. Defining Organised Crime 93

3.1.1.1. Concepts of organised crime 93

3.1.1.2. Problems and critique 95

3.1.2. Characteristics of Organised Crime 97

3.2. Economic Analysis of Organised Crime 100

3.2.1.1. The economics of crime 100

3.2.1.2. Early economic approaches to organised crime 101

3.2.2. Principles and Objectives of Economic Activity 102

3.2.2.2. Objectives of economic activity 104

3.2.3. Positioning Organised Crime 104

3.2.4. The Illegal Market 106

3.2.4.1. The emergence of illegal markets 106

3.2.4.2. Special features of the illegal market 109

3.2.5. Customers of the Criminal Enterprise 110

3.2.6. The Market of Migrant Smuggling 111

3.3. Organisational Features of Migrant Smuggling 113

3.3.1. Structure and Management 113

3.3.1.1. Control and organisation schemes 113

3.3.1.2. Diversification of migrant smuggling organisations 117

3.3.1.3. Criminal organisations in Australia 118

3.3.2. Recruitment and Personnel Management 120

3.3.2.1. Vertical differentiation 120

3.3.2.2. Horizontal differentiation: division of labour 121

3.3.2.3. Human resources and recruitment 124

3.3.3. Globalisation 125

3.4. Operational Features of Migrant Smuggling 127

3.4.1. Supply: Mobilisation of Migrants 127

3.4.1.1. Contacting migrants 127

3.4.1.2. Sending countries 129

3.4.1.3. Profile of the migrants 131

3.4.2. The Illegal Services 133

3.4.2.1. Preparation of the migrants 133

3.4.2.2. Travel documents 134

3.4.2.2.1. General observations 134

3.4.2.2.2. Document fraud and misuse in the Asia Pacific region 135

3.4.2.3. Transportation and routing 137

3.4.2.3.1. General patterns 137

3.4.2.3.2. Modes of transportation 137

3.4.2.3.3. Regional analysis 139

3.4.2.4. Illegal immigration in Australia 146

3.4.2.4.1. Boat arrivals 148

3.4.2.4.2. Air arrivals 151

3.4.3. Distribution: Post-Immigration Activities 153

3.4.3.1. Arriving in the destination country 153

3.4.3.2. Post-immigration situation 153

3.4.4. Finance 156

3.4.4.1. Financing organised crime 156

3.4.4.2. Profit estimations 157

3.4.4.3. Money laundering 159

Chapter 4 Migrant Smuggling in Australian Law

4.1. Migrant Smuggling Offences 164

4.1.1. Sources and General Remarks 164

4.1.1.1. Structure and developments 165

4.1.1.2. Geographical application 166

4.1.1.3. Definition of terms 167

4.1.2. Operational Offences 168

4.1.2.1. Mobilisation of illegal migrants 168

4.1.2.2. Organising and facilitating illegal immigration 169

4.1.2.3. Transporting illegal immigrants 171

4.1.2.3.1. Transporting undocumented migrants 171

4.1.2.3.2. Transporting concealed migrants 173

4.1.2.4. Harbouring and concealing illegal migrants 174

4.1.2.5. Making false statements for another person and causing false statements to be made 175

4.1.2.6. Production and provision of false documents 178

4.1.2.6.1. Producing fraudulent documents (forgery) 179

4.1.2.6.2. Transferring identity and immigration documents 181

4.1.2.6.3. Use and possession of fraudulent documents 182

4.1.3. Organisational Offences 183

4.1.3.1. Organised crime and conspiracy 183

4.1.3.2. Financing organised crime 184

4.1.3.3. Participation of officials 185

4.1.4. Summary Remarks 187

4.2. Offences Applying to Illegal Migrants 189

4.2.1. Illegal Departure & Illegal Entry 189

4.2.1.1. Emigration offences 189

4.2.1.2. Illegal immigration as an offence 189

4.2.2. False Claims 191

4.2.3. Possession and Use of Fraudulent Documents 192

4.3. Protection of Smuggled Migrants 195

4.3.1. Australia's Refugee and Humanitarian Immigration Program 196

4.3.1.1. Australia's obligations under international refugee law 197

4.3.1.2. Protection of onshore applicants in Australia 199

4.3.2. Government Assistance and Legal Support 203

4.3.2.1. Asylum seekers in immigration detention 204

4.3.2.2. Non-detained immigrants 207

4.3.3. Rights of Appeal and Review 209

4.3.3.1. Refugee Review Tribunal 211

4.3.3.2. Federal Court 213

4.3.3.3. Administrative Appeals Tribunal 213

4.3.3.4. High Court of Australia 213

4.3.4. Detention and Removal 214

4.3.4.1. The Australian practice 214

4.3.4.2. Legitimacy of the current practice 215

Chapter 5 Immigration and Organised Crime Legislation in the Asia Pacific Region

5.1. Immigration and Asylum Systems in the Asia Pacific 225

5.1.1. Pre-Arrival Regulations 225

5.1.1.1. Defining foreigners 226

5.1.1.2. Entry and visa regulations 227

5.1.1.3. Exclusion clauses and prohibitions 229

5.3.3. Obtaining, Possessing and Using Fraudulent Documents 282

Chapter 6 International Initiatives to Combat Migrant Smuggling

6.1. The Role of International Organisations 290

6.1.1. Carrier and Transportation Organisations 290

6.1.1.1. International Maritime Organisation (IMO) 291

6.1.1.2. International aviation law and the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) 294

6.1.1.3. International Air Transport Association (IATA) 296

6.1.1.4. Carrier regulations and migrant smuggling 297

6.1.2. Migration, Refugee and Humanitarian Organisations 298

6.1.2.1. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) 299

6.1.2.2. Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (UNHCHR) 301

6.1.2.3. International Organisation for Migration (IOM) 302

6.1.3. Law Enforcement 305

6.1.3.1. Interpol 305

6.1.3.2. Inter-Governmental Consultations on Asylum, Refugee and Migration Policies in Europe, North America and Australia (IGC) 308

6.2. The United Nations and Organised Crime 309

6.2.1. UN Commission for Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice 309

6.2.2. UN Congresses on the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders 311

6.2.3. UN Office for Drug Control and Crime Prevention (UNODCCP) 314

6.2.3.1. UN Drug Control Program (UNDCP) 314

6.2.3.2. UNDCP Regional Centre for East Asia and the Pacific 315

6.2.4. UN Centre for International Crime Prevention (CICP) 316

6.2.5. Other UN Initiatives and Regional UN Agencies 317

6.2.5.1. UN Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute (UNICRI) 317

6.2.5.2. Asia and Far East Institute for the Prevention of Crime and the Treatment of Offenders (UNAFEI) 318

6.2.5.3. UN Crime and Justice Information Network (UNCJIN) 318

6.3. United Nations Convention against Transnational Organised Crime 320

6.3.1. Early Developments 320

6.3.1.1. International conventions on the prevention and suppression of crime 320

6.3.1.2. UN World Ministerial Conference on Organised Transnational Crime and the Naples Declaration 323

6.3.1.3. Draft proposals for an organised crime convention 326

6.3.1.4. The work of the Ad Hoc Committee on the Elaboration of an International Convention against Transnational Organised Crime 328

6.3.2. The Provisions under the Convention 330

6.3.2.1. The concept of organised crime under the Convention 331

6.3.2.2. Criminalisation and prevention of organised crime 332

6.3.2.3. Money laundering 336

6.3.2.4. Corruption 338

6.3.2.5. Legal and judicial cooperation and extradition 338

6.3.2.6. Law enforcement and technical cooperation 340

6.3.2.7. Confiscation and seizure of assets 341

6.3.2.8. Protection of witnesses and victims 342

6.3.2.9. Application and implementation provisions 343

6.3.3. Evaluation 344

6.4. UN Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Air and Sea 346

6.4.1. Initiatives for a Convention against Migrant Smuggling 346

6.4.1.1. Italy's proposal to the International Maritime Organisation 347

6.4.1.2. Austria's proposal to the UN General Assembly 349

6.4.2. The Provisions under the Protocol 351

6.4.2.1. Migrant smuggling offences 351

6.4.2.1.1. Smuggling of migrants 351

6.4.2.1.2. Harbouring and concealing illegal migrants 352

6.4.2.1.3. Producing and transferring fraudulent documents 353

6.4.2.1.4. Scope and application of offences 354

6.4.2.2. Cooperative and preventive measures 355

6.4.2.3. Special measures against migrant smuggling by sea 357

6.4.2.4. The position of illegal migrants under the Protocol 358

6.4.2.5. Application and implementation of the Protocol 360

6.5. Regional Initiatives against Illegal Migration and Organised Crime 363

6.5.1. Regional Seminar on Irregular Migration and Migrant Trafficking in East and South East Asia: the Manila Process 363

6.5.2. Asia Pacific Consultations (APC) 365

6.5.3. Asian African Legal Consultative Committee (AALCC) 366

6.5.4. Regional Ministerial Conference on People Smuggling, Trafficking in Persons and Related Transnational Crime 368

6.5.5. Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) 368

6.5.5.1. ASEAN Plan of Action in Combating Transnational Crime 369

6.5.5.2. ASEAN Cooperation on Immigration Matters 371

6.5.5.3. ASEAN Chiefs of National Police (ASEANAPOL) 372

6.5.6. Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) 372

6.5.7. Pacific Islands Forum 373

6.5.8. Council for Security Cooperation in the Asia Pacific (CSCAP) 374

6.5.9. Other Regional Organisations 376

6.5.9.1. Association of Asia Pacific Airlines (AAPA) 376

6.5.9.2. Pacific Rim Immigration Intelligence Officers' Conference (PACRIM) 377

6.5.9.3. South Pacific Islands Criminal Intelligence Network (SPICIN) 377

Chapter 7 The Way Ahead

7.1. Proposals for Change 383

7.1.1. General Objectives 383

7.1.1.1. Criminal law and criminal justice systems 384

7.1.1.2. Migration law and policy 386

7.1.1.3. Human rights and refugee law 387

7.1.1.4. Structural change 389

7.1.2. Specific Proposals 390

7.1.2.1. Migrant smuggling offences 390

7.1.2.2. Offences applying to illegal migrants 393

7.1.2.3. Organised crime legislation 394

7.1.2.4. Law enforcement and judicial cooperation 395

7.1.2.5. Immigration law 396

7.1.2.6. Refugee law 400

7.1.3. Other Recommendations 402

Appendix A Legislation

Country Profiles 408

A.1. Migrant Smuggling Offences 408

A.1.1. Operational Offences 408

A.1.2. Organisational Offences 411

A.2. Offences Applying to Illegal Migrants 412

A.3. Immigration Regulations 414

A.4. Refugee and Asylum Systems 416

Appendix B Signatures to International Conventions and Membership in International and Regional Organisations 418.

Notes:

Originally presented as the author's thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Adelaide Law School, 2002.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN:

9004136150

OCLC:

53940340