Surface analysis methods in materials science / D.J. O'Connor, B.A. Sexton, R.St.C. Smart (eds.).

Format:

Book

Contributor:

O'Connor, D. J. (D. John), 1952-

Sexton, B. A. (Brett A.), 1950-

Smart, R. St. C. (Roger St. C.), 1944-

Rosengarten Family Fund.

Series:

Springer series in surface sciences ; 23.

Springer series in surface sciences ; 23

Language:

English

Subjects (All):

Surfaces (Technology)--Analysis.

Surfaces (Technology).

Physical Description:

xxvi, 585 pages : illustrations ; 24 cm.

Edition:

Second edition.

Place of Publication:

Berlin ; New York : Springer, 2003.

Summary:

This guide to the use of surface analysis techniques, now in its second edition, has expanded to include more techniques, current applications and updated references. It outlines the application of surface analysis techniques to a broad range of studies in materials science and engineering. The book consists of three parts: an extensive introduction to the concepts of surface structure and composition, a techniques section describing 19 techniques and a section on applications. Each chapter has been written by specialists in the field who draw on their experience in current developments and applications. This book is aimed at scientists and engineers in research and development seeking a description of available techniques in a concise but informative style. It is invaluable as a comprehensive text for scientists and engineers attending training courses and workshops. The level and content of this book make it ideal as a course text for senior undergraduate and postraduate students in materials science, materials engineering, physics, chemistry and metallurgy.

Contents:

1 Solid Surfaces, Their Structure and Composition / C. Klauber, R. St. C. Smart 3

1.1 Importance of the Surface 3

1.2 Solid Surfaces of Different Materials 7

1.2.1 A Material Under Attack: Aluminium 11

1.3 Methods of Surface Analysis 12

1.3.1 Variety of Surface Analytical Techniques 12

1.4 Structural Imaging 13

1.4.1 Direct Physical Imaging 13

1.4.2 Indirect Structural Imaging

Relaxation and Reconstruction 20

1.5 Composition of the Surface Selvedge 23

1.5.1 Electron Inelastic Mean Free Paths 24

1.5.2 Variation of Elemental Sensitivities 28

1.5.3 Practical Detection Limits 31

1.5.4 Practical Spatial Limits 32

1.5.5 Chemical State Information 37

1.5.6 Laboratory Standards 41

1.5.7 Inter-laboratory Errors 41

1.6 Defect and Reaction Sites at Surfaces 42

1.7 Electronic Structure at Surfaces 46

1.8 Structures of Adsorbed Layers 49

1.9 Structure in Depth Profiles Through Surfaces 51

1.10 Specific Structures 55

1.10.1 Grain Structures, Phase Distributions and Inclusions 55

1.10.2 Fracture Faces and Intergranular Regions 55

1.10.3 Pore Structures 57

1.10.4 Precipitates, Reaction Products and Recrystallised Particles on Surfaces 60

1.10.5 Magnetic Domains 60

1.11 Technique-Induced Artifacts 61

1.11.1 Radiation Damage 61

1.11.2 Electrostatic Charging 64

2 UHV Basics / C. Klauber 71

2.1 The Need for Ultrahigh Vacuum 71

2.2 Achieving UHV 74

2.4 Specimen Handling: ASTM Standards 78

Part II Techniques

3 Electron Microscope Techniques for Surface Characterization / P.S. Turner, C.E. Nockolds, S. Bulcock 85

3.1 What Do We Need to Know About Surface Structures? 86

3.2 Electron Optical Imaging Systems 87

3.2.1 Electron Sources 89

3.2.2 Electron Lenses 89

3.2.3 Detection Systems 90

3.3 Scanning Electron Microscopy of Surfaces 91

3.3.1 The SEM 91

3.3.2 The Signals and Detectors 92

3.3.3 Resolution and Contrast in SEM Images 93

3.3.4 Variable Pressure SEM and Environmental SEM 97

3.3.5 Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectrometry 98

3.4 Transmission Electron Microscopy of Surfaces 99

3.4.1 The Transmission Electron Microscope 99

3.4.2 Electron Diffraction 101

3.4.3 Image Contrast and Resolution in the TEM 101

3.4.4 Imaging Surface Structures in the TEM 102

3.4.5 Reflection Electron Microscopy 103

4 Sputter Depth Profiling / B.V. King 107

4.1 Analysis of a Sputter Depth Profile 108

4.1.1 Calibration of the Depth Scale 108

4.1.2 Calibration of the Concentration Scale 112

4.2 The Depth Resolution of Sputter Profiling 115

4.2.1 Specification of the Depth Resolution 115

4.2.2 Instrumental Factors Determining the Depth Resolution 117

4.2.3 Surface Effects Determining the Depth Resolution 119

4.2.4 Bulk Effects Affecting the Depth Resolution 120

4.2.5 Minimisation of the Depth Resolution 121

5 SIMS

Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry / R.J. MacDonald, B.V. King 127

5.1 The Practice of SIMS 128

5.1.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of SIMS 130

5.1.3 The Yield of Secondary Ions 131

5.2 Construction of a Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometer 138

5.3 Topics in SIMS Analysis 145

5.3.1 Signal Enhancement by Surface Adsorption 145

5.3.2 Using Secondary Ion Energies in SIMS Analysis 147

5.3.3 The Relative Sensitivity Factor 149

5.4 Static SIMS Analysis 150

6 Auger Electron Spectroscopy and Microscopy

Techniques and Applications / P.C. Dastoor 155

6.3 Instrumentation 158

6.4 Quantification 159

6.5 Techniques 160

6.5.1 Spot Analysis Mode 161

6.5.2 Line Scan Mode 162

6.5.3 Scanning Mode 163

6.5.4 Scanning Auger Microscopy 164

6.5.5 Depth Profiling Mode 167

6.5.6 Preferential Sputtering 167

6.5.7 Attenuation Length 168

6.5.8 Chemical Effects 168

6.6 Applications 169

6.6.1 Thin Film Analysis 169

6.6.2 Surface Diffusion and Segregation 170

6.7 Future 171

7 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy / M.H. Kibel 175

7.1.1 Theory 175

7.1.2 Typical Spectrum 176

7.1.3 Surface Specificity 178

7.2 Instrumentation 179

7.2.1 Essential Components 179

7.2.2 Optional Components 182

7.2.3 Synchrotron Radiation 183

7.2.4 Imaging XPS 183

7.3 Spectral Information 184

7.3.1 Spin-Orbit Splitting 184

7.3.2 Chemical Shifts 185

7.3.3 Auger Chemical Shifts in XPS 186

7.3.4 X-Ray Line Satellites 187

7.3.5 "Shake-up" Lines 187

7.3.6 Ghost Lines 188

7.3.7 Plasmon Loss Lines 189

7.4 Quantitative Analysis 189

7.5 Experimental Techniques 191

7.5.1 Variation of X-Ray Sources 191

7.5.2 Depth Profiles 191

7.5.3 Angular Variations 194

7.5.4 Sample Charging 194

7.6 Comparison with Other Techniques 195

7.7 Applications 197

8 Vibrational Spectroscopy of Surfaces / R.L. Frost, N.K. Roberts 203

8.2 Surface Techniques 206

8.2.1 Diffuse Reflectance Infrared Fourier Transform (DRIFT) 207

8.2.2 Attenuated Total Reflectance Spectroscopy (ATR) 209

8.2.3 Photoacoustic Spectroscopy (PAS) 216

8.2.4 Infrared Emission Spectroscopy (IES) 219

8.3 Fourier transform Raman spectroscopy 221

8.4 Raman Microscopy 224

9 Rutherford Backscattering Spectrometry and Nuclear Reaction Analysis / S.H. Sie 229

9.2.1 Stopping Power 232

9.2.2 Straggling 233

9.3 Rutherford Backscattering Spectrometry 234

9.3.1 Experimental Considerations 236

9.3.3 Special Cases 238

9.4 Nuclear Reaction Analysis 240

9.4.1 Formalism 241

9.4.2 Experimental Considerations 242

10 Materials Characterization by Scanned Probe Analysis / S. Myhra 247

10.2 The Surface Analytical Context 251

10.3 Generic SPM Systems 251

10.4 Physical Principles 253

10.4.1 STM/STS 253

10.4.2 Scanning Force Microscopy (SFM) 256

10.4.3 Intermittent Contact Mode 257

10.4.4 F-d Analysis 258

10.4.5 Lateral Force Microscopy (LFM) 260

10.5 Procedures for 'Best Practice' 262

10.5.1 Spatial Characteristics of Scanners 263

10.5.2 Determination of c[subscript N] and c[subscript T] 264

10.5.3 Determination of Spring Constants 265

10.5.4 Determination of Actual Tip Parameters in the Mesoscopic Regime 266

10.6 Illustrative Case Studies 267

10.6.1 Surface and Defect Structures of WTe[subscript 2] Investigated by UHV-STM 267

10.6.2 Organic Thin Film and Surface Mechanical Characterization 269

10.6.3 AFM Analysis of 'Soft' Biological Materials 273

10.6.4 Nanotribology of Solid Lubricants 278

11 Low Energy Ion Scattering / D.J. O'Connor 287

11.1 Qualitative Surface Analysis 287

11.2 Advantage of Recoil Detection 289

11.3 Quantitative Analysis 291

11.3.1 Scattered Ion Yield 291

11.3.2 Differential Scattering Cross Section 291

11.3.3 Charge Exchange 292

11.3.4 Relative Measurements 295

11.3.5 Standards 297

11.4 Surface Structural Analysis 299

11.4.1 Multiple Scattering 299

11.4.2 Impact Collision Ion Surface Scattering (ICISS) 300

11.5 Experimental Apparatus 302

12 Reflection High Energy Electron Diffraction / G.L. Price 307

12.1 Theory 309

12.2 Applications 312

13 Low Energy Electron Diffraction / P.J. Jennings, C.Q. Sun 319

13.1 The Development of LEED 319

13.2 The LEED Experiment 320

13.2.1 Sample Preparation 323

13.2.2 Data Collection 323

13.3 Diffraction from a Surface 324

13.3.1 Bragg Peaks in LEED Spectra 325

13.4 LEED Intensity Analysis 326

13.5 LEED Fine Structure 328

13.6 Applications of LEED 329

13.6.1 Determination of the Symmetry and Size of the Unit Mesh 329

13.6.2 Unit Meshes for Chemisorbed Systems 330

13.6.3 LEED Intensity Analysis 330

13.6.4 Surface Barrier Analysis 332

14 Ultraviolet Photoelectron Spectroscopy of Solids / R. Leckey 337

14.1 Experimental Considerations 339

14.2 Angle Resolved UPS 340

14.3 Fermi Surface Studies 344

15 EXAFS / R.F. Garrett, G.J.

Foran 347

15.2 Experimental Details 348

15.2.1 Synchrotron Radiation 350

15.2.2 Synchrotron Beamlines for EXAFS 352

15.2.3 Detectors 354

15.2.5 Acquiring EXAFS Data 357

15.3 Theory of X-ray Absorption 359

15.3.1 EXAFS 359

15.3.2 XANES 361

15.4 EXAFS Analysis 362

15.4.1 Data Reduction 362

15.4.2 Conversion to k-space 363

15.4.3 Background Subtraction 363

15.4.4 Fourier Transformation 364

15.4.5 Fourier Filtering and Back Transformation 364

15.4.6 Modelling and Least Squares Fitting to the EXAFS Equation 365

15.5.1 Surface EXAFS of Titanium Nanostructure Thin Films 366

15.5.2 Ion-Implantation Induced Amorphisation of Germanium 370.

Notes:

Includes bibliographical references (pages [569]-575) and index.

Local Notes:

Acquired for the Penn Libraries with assistance from the Rosengarten Family Fund.

ISBN:

3540413308

OCLC:

51839959