Techniques in archaeological geology / Ervan G. Garrison.

Format:

Book

Author/Creator:

Garrison, Ervan G.

Series:

Natural science in archaeology

Language:

English

Subjects (All):

Archaeological geology.

Physical Description:

xiii, 304 pages : illustrations ; 25 cm.

Place of Publication:

Berlin ; New York : Springer, [2003]

Summary:

The archaeological geology of the Quaternary or the geological epoch during which humankind evolved is a scientific endeavor with much to offer in the fields of archaeology and palaeoanthropology. Earth science techniques offer diverse ways of characterizing the elements of past landscapes and archaeological facies. This book is a survey of techniques used in archaeological geology for the study of soils, sediments, rocks and minerals. The techniques presented represent those most commonly used today. They are discussed in detail and examples are provided, in many cases, to demonstrate their usefulness to archaeologists.

Contents:

2 Survey and Mapping the Geomorphological and Geological Context 7

2.2 Geomorphological Mapping 7

2.3 Geomorphic Concepts 8

2.4 Geomorphic Setting 10

2.4.1 Fluvial Landforms 10

2.4.2 Coastal Landforms 12

2.4.3 Glacial Landforms 13

2.4.4 Desert/Arid Landforms 15

2.4.5 Karst/Cave Landforms 16

2.4.6 Volcanic Landforms 20

2.5 Earthquakes

Volcanic or Otherwise 22

2.6 Mapping Techniques 23

2.7 Scale 27

2.8 Making the Map

One Example 28

2.9 Lithares, Boeotia (Greece)

Geographic Information Systems, Geophysics and LANDSAT 29

2.10 Geological Mapping 32

2.11 The Vertical or Stratigraphic Section 32

2.12 Geological Mapping Techniques 36

2.13 Other Types of Maps 38

2.13.1 Paleogeographic 38

2.13.2 Isopach 38

2.13.3 Lithofacies 42

3 Geophysical Techniques for Archaeology 45

3.2 Electrical Methods

Resistivity 47

3.3 Resistivity Arrays 50

3.3.1 Wenner Array 50

3.3.1.1 Archaeological Application of the Wenner Array: Resistivity Profiling 51

3.3.2 Double-Dipole Array 52

3.3.2.1 Archaeological Application of the Double-Dipole Array 54

3.3.3 Two/Twin Electrode Array 56

3.3.4 Schlumberger Array 56

3.3.4.1 Archaeological Application of the Schlumberger Array 57

3.4 Vertical Sounding Methods in Archaeology 57

3.5 Electrical Methods

Electromagnetic/Conductivity 59

3.6 Application of Electromagnetic Methods 63

3.7 Magnetic Methods 63

3.8 Magnetometers 66

3.8.1 Fluxgate Magnetometer 66

3.8.2 Proton Precession Magnetometer 67

3.8.3 Optically Pumped Magnetometer 68

3.9 Gradiometers 68

3.10 Magnetic Anomaly Interpretation

Basic Principles 69

3.11 Magnetic Prospection

Practice 71

3.12 Archaeological Application of Mangetic Prospection 72

3.13 Data Acquisition and Display 72

3.14 Advantages and Disadvantages 75

3.15 Ground Penetrating Radar 75

3.16 Field Survey Methods 78

3.17 Digital Post-Processing of Ground Penetrating Radar Data 79

3.18 Multiple Geophysical Techniques 79

3.19 Underwater Geophysical Survey Techniques in Archaeology 81

4 Field Sampling Techniques for Archaeological Sediments and Soils 85

4.2 A Brief Review of Sediments and Soils 86

4.2.1 Soils 87

4.2.2 Horizons and Their Terminology 89

4.3 Describing Archaeological Sediments and Soils in Profile 95

4.3.1 Strata and Horizons 95

4.3.2 Color 96

4.3.3 Texture 97

4.3.4 Structure 98

4.3.5 Consistence 98

4.3.6 pH or Reactibility 99

4.3.7 Stoniness 99

4.3.8 Organic Matter 100

4.3.9 Mode 100

4.3.10 Boundaries 101

4.4 Sampling Methods 104

4.4.1 Undisturbed Versus Disturbed Sampling

Profile Samples, Soil Monoliths and Solid Cores 104

4.4.2 Profile Exposures 104

4.4.3 Profile Samples 106

4.4.4 Core Samples 107

4.4.5 Rotary Corers 107

4.4.6 Percussion and Drive Corers 109

4.4.7 Gravity ("Drop") and Piston Corers 110

4.4.8 Freeze Corers 112

4.4.9 Augers and Drills: Undisturbed Sampling Techniques 113

4.5 Handling and Description of Cores

Some General Considerations 114

4.5.1 Rotary, Percussion/Drive and Piston Cores 114

4.5.2 Rotary Augers and Drills 115

4.5.3 Cryogenic or Freeze Cores 117

4.6 Scale and Size

Adequacy of the Sample 118

5 Analytical Techniques for Archaeological Sediments 121

5.2 Particle Size Analysis 122

5.3 Hydrometer Method 126

5.4 The Pipette Method 127

5.5 The Modified Pipette or "Fleaker" Method 128

5.5.1 Statistical Parameters and Particle Size Analysis 129

5.6 Point Count Analysis 129

5.6.1 Point Count Analysis

Sample Preparation and Microscopes 130

5.7 Organic Content Determination Methods 132

5.7.1 Total Organic Carbon 132

5.7.2 Loss-On-Ignition 132

5.8 Bulk Density 133

5.9 Carbonate Content 133

5.10 Phosphorus Analysis 134

5.11 Determination of Total Phosphorus by Perchloric Digestion 135

5.12 Absolute Phosphate Analysis Versus Qualitative Color Tests 137

5.13 Colorimetry and Spectrophotometry 139

5.14 Palynology

Study of Archaeological Pollen 140

5.15 Phytoliths for Archaeology 144

5.16 Phytolith Identification and Morphology 145

5.17 Phytolith Extraction and Counting 146

5.18 Resin Impregnation and Micromorphology 148

5.19 Applications of Techniques

An Archaeoloigical Example 148

5.19.1 Late Quaternary Sediments and Soils of the Great Plains, Missouri and Illinois 148

6 Petrography for Archaeological Geology 153

6.2 Techniques

Optical and Otherwise 154

6.3 Macroscopic Analysis of Rocks and Minerals

Hand Specimen Properties 155

6.3.1 Color 155

6.3.2 Streak 155

6.3.3 Luster 156

6.3.4 Cleavage and Fracture 156

6.3.5 Hardness 156

6.3.6 Twinning 157

6.4 Optical Properties of Minerals 157

6.4.1 Reflected Light Microscopy 160

6.5 Major Rock Types and Archaeology 160

6.6 Sedimentary Rocks 160

6.6.1 Clastic Rocks 162

6.6.2 Sandstones 162

6.7 Arenite or Arenitic Sandstone 162

6.8 Arkose or Arkosic Sandstone 163

6.9 Lithic Arenite Sandstone 163

6.10 Graywackes or Clay-Rich Sandstone ("Lutitic") 164

6.11 Siltstone, Mudstone, Claystone and Shale 164

6.12 Breccias and Conglomerates 166

6.13 Carbonates: Limestones and Dolomites 168

6.14 Organic or Bioclastic Limestone 170

6.15 Clastic or Calcarenite Limestones 171

6.16 Aphanitic Limestones 172

6.17 Dolomite and Dolomitic Limestones 172

6.18 Cherts, Gypsum and Ironstones 174

6.19 Chert/Flint 174

6.20 Igneous Rocks 178

6.21 Granite 180

6.22 Diorite 180

6.23 Andesite 182

6.24 Basalt 183

6.25 Rhyolite and Obsidian 184

6.25.2 Thin Section Properties 186

6.26 Gabbro/Diabase 186

6.27 Tuff 187

6.28 Metamorphic Rocks 187

6.29 Metamorphic Rocks

Foliated 189

6.30 Nonfoliated, Metamorphic Rocks 190

6.31 Metamorphic Rocks of Archaeological Interest 191

6.31.1 Quartzite 191

6.31.2 Marble 192

6.31.3 Serpentinite and Steatite 195

6.31.4 "Greenstone" 196

6.31.5 Slate 198

6.31.6 Gneisses and Schists 199

6.31.6.1 General Properties 199

6.31.6.2 Thin Section Properties 201

6.32 Geramics and Petrography 201

6.32.1 Ceramics and "Ceramics" 202

6.32.2 Paste and Temper 202

7 Instrumental Analytical Techniques for Archaeological Geology 207

7.2 Analytical Techniques and Their Pluses (and Minuses) for Archaeology 208

7.3 X-Ray Diffraction 212

7.4 X-Ray Fluorescence 215

7.5 Electron Microprobe Analysis and Proton-Induced X-Ray Emission 218

7.6 Atomic Absorption, Inductively Coupled Plasma/Atomic Emission Spectroscopy 222

7.7 Mass Spectroscopy 225

7.8 Inductively Coupled Plasma

Mass Spectroscopy 229

7.9 Neutron Activation Analysis 230

7.9.1 Provenance Determination 232

7.10 Electron Spin Resonance 233

7.11 Magnetic Susceptibility 235

7.12 Cathodoluminescence Microscopy 238

7.13 Infrared Spectroscopy 241

7.14 Instrumental Geochemical Techniques and Their Availability to Archaeology 241

7.15 The Struggle over Bones 245

8 Statistics in Archaeological Geology 247

8.2 Descriptive Statistics 248

8.2.1 Scales 248

8.2.2 Variables 249

8.2.3 Frequency Distributions, the Normal Distribution and Dispersion 249

8.2.4 The Normal Distribution 251

8.2.5 Central Tendency 252

8.2.6 Arithmetic Mean and Its Standard Deviation 253

8.3 Inference

Hypothesis Testing, Types of Error and Sample Size 254

8.3.1 Hypotheses and Testing 254

8.3.2 Probability 254

8.3.3 Types of Error 255

8.3.4 Confidence Interval and the Z-Score 256

8.3.5 Sample Size 257

8.3.6 Example 1: Cranial Capacity in H.

erectus 258

8.4 Data Analysis 260

8.4.1 Example 2: Single Variable Data

Phosphorus in Soils 260

8.4.2 Data Analysis of More Than One Variable 261

8.4.3 Covariation-Correlation, Causality or "Not" 261

8.4.4 Least-Squares Analysis and Linear Regression 262

8.4.5 Example 3: Alloys in Iron Age Metallurgy 264

8.4.6 Paired Comparisons or Paired Difference Experiments 265

8.5 Exploration

Multivariate Approaches to Large Data Sets 267

8.5.1 Exploring Correlation Among n Greater Than Two Variables

Some Multivariate Statistical Techniques 267

8.5.2 Discriminant Function Analysis and Principal Components Analysis 269

8.5.3 Cluster Analysis 272

8.5.4 Chi-Square: "Nonparametric" Calculation of Association 275.

Notes:

"With 102 figures and 20 tables."

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN:

354043822X

OCLC:

52509668