Airplane stability and control : a history of the technologies that made aviation possible / Malcolm J. Abzug, E. Eugene Larrabee.

Format:

Book

Author/Creator:

Abzug, Malcolm J.

Contributor:

Larrabee, E. Eugene.

Series:

Cambridge aerospace series ; 14.

Cambridge aerospace series ; 14

Language:

English

Subjects (All):

Stability of airplanes.

Airplanes--Design and construction--History.

Airplanes.

Airplanes--Control systems--History.

Airplanes--Control systems.

History.

Airplanes--Design and construction.

Physical Description:

xix, 391 pages : illustrations ; 27 cm.

Edition:

Second edition.

Place of Publication:

Cambridge, U.K. ; New York : Cambridge University Press, 2002.

Contents:

1 Early Developments in Stability and Control 1

1.1 Inherent Stability and the Early Machines 1

1.2 The Problem of Control 1

1.3 Catching Up to the Wright Brothers 3

1.4 The Invention of Flap-Type Control Surfaces and Tabs 3

1.5 Handles, Wheels, and Pedals 4

1.6 Wright Controls 5

1.7 Bleriot and Deperdussin Controls 5

1.8 Stability and Control of World War I Pursuit Airplanes 6

1.9 Contrasting Design Philosophies 7

1.10 Frederick Lanchester 9

1.11 G. H. Bryan and the Equations of Motion 9

1.12 Metacenter, Center of Pressure, Aerodynamic Center, and Neutral Point 11

2 Teachers and Texts 13

2.1 Stability and Control Educators 13

2.2 Modern Stability and Control Teaching Methods 14

2.3 Stability and Control Research Institutions 14

2.4 Stability and Control Textbooks and Conferences 17

3 Flying Qualities Become a Science 19

3.1 Warner, Norton, and Allen 19

3.2 The First Flying Qualities Specification 22

3.3 Hartley Soule and Floyd Thompson at Langley 22

3.4 Robert Gilruth's Breakthrough 26

3.5 S. B. Gates in Britain 29

3.6 The U.S. Military Services Follow NACA's Lead 30

3.7 Civil Airworthiness Requirements 32

3.8 World-Wide Flying Qualities Specifications 32

3.9 Equivalent System Models and Pilot Rating 33

3.10 The Counterrevolution 34

3.11 Procurement Problems 35

3.12 Variable-Stability Airplanes Play a Part 35

3.13 Variable-Stability Airplanes as Trainers 36

3.14 The Future of Variable-Stability Airplanes 37

3.15 The V/STOL Case 39

3.16 Two Famous Airplanes 41

3.17 Changing Military Missions and Flying Qualities Requirements 43

3.18 Long-Lived Stability and Control Myths 44

4 Power Effects on Stability and Control 45

4.1 Propeller Effects on Stability and Control 45

4.2 Direct-Thrust Moments in Pitch 46

4.3 Direct-Thrust Moments in Yaw 47

4.4 World War II Twin-Engine Bombers 47

4.5 Modern Light Twin Airplanes 49

4.6 Propeller Slipstream Effects 50

4.7 Direct Propeller Forces in Yaw (or at Angle of Attack) 52

4.8 Jet and Rocket Effects on Stability and Control 53

4.8.1 Jet Intake Normal Force 53

4.8.2 Airstream Deviation Due to Inflow 54

4.9 Special VTOL Jet Inflow Effects 54

4.9.1 Jet Damping and Inertial Effects 55

5 Managing Control Forces 57

5.1 Desirable Control Force Levels 57

5.2 Background to Aerodynamically Balanced Control Surfaces 57

5.3 Horn Balances 60

5.4 Overhang or Leading-Edge Balances 61

5.5 Frise Ailerons 63

5.6 Aileron Differential 65

5.7 Balancing or Geared Tabs 66

5.8 Trailing-Edge Angle and Beveled Controls 66

5.9 Corded Controls 68

5.10 Spoiler Ailerons 69

5.10.1 Spoiler Opening Aerodynamics 70

5.10.2 Spoiler Steady-State Aerodynamics 70

5.10.3 Spoiler Operating Forces 71

5.10.4 Spoiler Aileron Applications 71

5.11 Internally Balanced Controls 72

5.12 Flying or Servo and Linked Tabs 74

5.13 Spring Tabs 75

5.14 Springy Tabs and Downsprings 77

5.15 All-Movable Controls 78

5.16 Mechanical Control System Design Details 78

5.17 Hydraulic Control Boost 79

5.18 Early Hydraulic Boost Problems 80

5.19 Irreversible Powered Controls 80

5.20 Artificial Feel Systems 81

5.21 Fly-by-Wire 82

5.22 Remaining Design Problems in Power Control Systems 86

5.23 Safety Issues in Fly-by-Wire Control Systems 87

5.24 Managing Redundancy in Fly-by-Wire Control Systems 88

5.25 Electric and Fly-by-Light Controls 89

6 Stability and Control at the Design Stage 90

6.1 Layout Principles 90

6.1.1 Subsonic Airplane Balance 90

6.1.2 Tail Location, Size, and Shape 91

6.2 Estimation from Drawings 92

6.2.1 Early Methods 92

6.2.2 Wing and Tail Methods 92

6.2.3 Bodies 93

6.2.4 Wing-Body Interference 93

6.2.5 Downwash and Sidewash 94

6.2.6 Early Design Methods Matured-DATCOM, RAeS, JSASS Data Sheets 95

6.2.7 Computational Fluid Dynamics 95

6.3 Estimation from Wind-Tunnel Data 97

7 The Jets at an Awkward Age 100

7.1 Needed Devices Are Not Installed 100

7.2 F4D, A4D, and A3D Manual Reversions 100

7.3 Partial Power Control 101

7.4 Nonelectronic Stability Augmentation 101

7.5 Grumman XF10F Jaguar 104

7.6 Successful B-52 Compromises 105

7.6.1 The B-52 Rudder Has Limited Control Authority 105

7.6.2 The B-52 Elevator Also Has Limited Control Authority 106

7.6.3 The B-52 Manually Controlled Ailerons Are Small 107

8 The Discovery of Inertial Coupling 109

8.1 W. H. Phillips Finds an Anomaly 109

8.2 The Phillips Inertial Coupling Technical Note 109

8.3 The First Flight Occurrences 112

8.4 The 1956 Wright Field Conference 115

8.5 Simplifications and Explications 116

8.6 The F4D Skyray Experience 118

8.7 Later Developments 120

8.8 Inertial Coupling and Future General-Aviation Aircraft 120

9 Spinning and Recovery 121

9.1 Spinning Before 1916 121

9.2 Advent of the Free-Spinning Wind Tunnels 121

9.3 Systematic Configuration Variations 124

9.4 Design for Spin Recovery 124

9.5 Changing Spin Recovery Piloting Techniques 126

9.5.1 Automatic Spin Recovery 128

9.6 The Role of Rotary Derivatives in Spins 128

9.7 Rotary Balances and the Steady Spin 129

9.8 Rotary Balances and the Unsteady Spin 130

9.9 Parameter Estimation Methods for Spins 131

9.10 The Case of the Grumman/American AA-1B 131

9.11 The Break with the Past 133

9.12 Effects of Wing Design on Spin Entry and Recovery 134

9.13 Drop and Radio-Controlled Model Testing 136

9.14 Remotely Piloted Spin Model Testing 137

9.15 Criteria for Departure Resistance 137

9.16 Vortex Effects and Self-Induced Wing Rock 141

9.17 Bifurcation Theory 142

9.18 Departures in Modern Fighters 142

10 Tactical Airplane Maneuverability 146

10.1 How Fast Should Fighter Airplanes Roll? 146

10.2 Air-to-Air Missile-Armed Fighters 148

10.3 Control Sensitivity and Overshoots in Rapid Pullups 148

10.3.1 Equivalent System Methods 148

10.3.2 Criteria Based on Equivalent Systems 149

10.3.3 Time Domain-Based Criteria 152

10.4 Rapid Rolls to Steep Turns 155

10.5 Supermaneuverability, High Angles of Attack 157

10.6 Unsteady Aerodynamics in the Supermaneuverability Regime 158

10.6.1 The Transfer Function Model for Unsteady Flow 158

10.7 The Inverse Problem 160

10.8 Thrust-Vector Control for Supermaneuvering 160

10.9 Forebody Controls for Supermaneuvering 160

10.10 Longitudinal Control for Recovery 161

11 High Mach Number Difficulties 162

11.1 A Slow Buildup 162

11.2 The First Dive Pullout Problems 162

11.3 P-47 Dives at Wright Field 165

11.4 P-51 and P-39 Dive Difficulties 167

11.5 Transonic Aerodynamic Testing 168

11.6 Invention of the Sweptback Wing 169

11.7 Sweptback Wings Are Tamed at Low Speeds 172

11.7.1 Wing Leading-Edge Devices 172

11.7.2 Fences and Wing Engine Pylons 172

11.8 Trim Changes Due to Compressibility 175

11.9 Transonic Pitchup 176

11.10 Supersonic Directional Instability 179

11.11 Principal Axis Inclination Instability 181

11.12 High-Altitude Stall Buffet 181

11.13 Supersonic Altitude Stability 182

11.14 Stability and Control of Hypersonic Airplanes 186

12 Naval Aircraft Problems 187

12.1 Standard Carrier Approaches 187

12.2 Aerodynamic and Thrust Considerations 188

12.3 Theoretical Studies 189

12.4 Direct Lift Control 193

12.5 The T-45A Goshawk 195

12.6 The Lockheed S-3A Viking 196

13 Ultralight and Human-Powered Airplanes 198

13.1 Apparent Mass Effects 198

13.2 Commercial and Kit-Built Ultralight Airplanes 199

13.3 The Gossamer and MIT Human-Powered Aircraft 200

13.4 Ultralight Airplane Pitch Stability 202

13.5 Turning Human-Powered Ultralight Airplanes 202

14 Fuel Slosh, Deep Stall, and More 205

14.1 Fuel Shift and Dynamic Fuel Slosh 205

14.2 Deep Stall 209

14.3 Ground

Effect 212

14.4 Directional Stability and Control in Ground Rolls 215

14.5 Vee- or Butterfly Tails 217

14.6 Control Surface Buzz 219

14.7 Rudder Lock and Dorsal Fins 220

14.8 Flight Vehicle System Identification from Flight Test 224

14.8.1 Early Attempts at Identification 224

14.8.2 Knob Twisting 224

14.8.3 Modern Identification Methods 225

14.8.4 Extensions to Nonlinearities and Unsteady Flow Regimes 228

14.9 Lifting Body Stability and Control 229

15 Safe Personal Airplanes 231

15.1 The Guggenheim Safe Airplane Competition 231

15.2 Progress after the Guggenheim Competition 231

15.3 Early Safe Personal Airplane Designs 233

15.4 1948 and 1966 NACA and NASA Test Series 234

15.5 Control Friction and Apparent Spiral Instability 235

15.6 Wing Levelers 237

15.7 The Role of Displays 237

15.8 Inappropriate Stability Augmentation 240

15.9 Unusual Aerodynamic Arrangements 240

15.10 Blind-Flying Demands on Stability and Control 241

15.10.1 Needle, Ball, and Airspeed 241

15.10.2 Artificial Horizon, Directional Gyro, and Autopilots 241

15.11 Single-Pilot IFR Operation 242

15.12 The Prospects for Safe Personal Airplanes 243

16 Stability and Control Issues with Variable Sweep 244

16.1 The First Variable-Sweep Wings - Rotation and Translation 244

16.2 The Rotation-Only Breakthrough 244

16.3 The F-111 Aardvark, or TFX 245

16.4 The F-14 Tomcat 246

16.5 The Rockwell B-1 246

16.6 The Oblique or Skewed Wing 247

16.7 Other Variable-Sweep Projects 251

17 Modern Canard Configurations 252

17.1 Burt Rutan and the Modern Canard Airplane 252

17.2 Canard Configuration Stall Characteristics 252

17.3 Directional Stability and Control of Canard Airplanes 253

17.4 The Penalty of Wing Sweepback on Low Subsonic Airplanes 253

17.5 Canard Airplane Spin Recovery 254

17.6 Other Canard Drawbacks 255

17.7 Pusher Propeller Problems 257

17.8 The Special Case of the Voyager 257

17.9 Modern Canard Tactical Airplanes 257

18 Evolution of the Equations of Motion 258

18.1 Euler and Hamilton 258

18.2 Linearization 262

18.3 Early Numerical Work 263

18.4 Glauert's and Later Nondimensional Forms 264

18.5 Rotary Derivatives 266

18.6 Stability Boundaries 267

18.7 Wind, Body, Stability, and Principal Axes 267

18.8 Laplace Transforms, Frequency Response, and Root Locus 270

18.9 The Modes of Airplane Motion 271

18.9.1 Literal Approximations to the Modes 273

18.10 Time Vector Analysis 274

18.11 Vector, Dyadic, Matrix, and Tensor Forms 274

18.12 Atmospheric Models 277

18.13 Integration Methods and Closed Forms 280

18.14 Steady-State Solutions 281

18.15 Equations of Motion Extension to Suborbital Flight 282

18.15.1 Heading Angular Velocity Correction and Initialization 284

18.16 Suborbital Flight Mechanics 284

18.17 Additional Special Forms of the Equations of Motion 284

19 The Elastic Airplane 286

19.1 Aeroelasticity and Stability and Control 286

19.2 Wing Torsional Divergence 287

19.3 The Semirigid Approach to Wing Torsional Divergence 287

19.4 The Effect of Wing Sweep on Torsional Divergence 288

19.5 Aileron-Reversal Theories 289

19.6 Aileron-Reversal Flight Experiences 290

19.7 Spoiler Ailerons Reduce Wing Twisting in Rolls 291

19.8 Aeroelastic Effects on Static Longitudinal Stability 291

19.9 Stabilizer Twist and Speed Stability 295

19.10 Dihedral Effect of a Flexible Wing 295

19.11 Finite-Element or Panel Methods in Quasi-Static Aeroelasticity 296

19.12 Aeroelastically Corrected Stability Derivatives 298

19.13 Mean and Structural Axes 299

19.14 Normal Mode Analysis 299

19.15 Quasi-Rigid Equations 300

19.16 Control System Coupling with Elastic Modes 300

19.17 Reduced-Order Elastic Airplane Models 302

19.18 Second-Order Elastic Airplane Models 302

20 Stability Augmentation 303

20.1 The Essence of Stability Augmentation 303

20.2 Automatic Pilots in History 304

20.3 The Systems Concept 304

20.4 Frequency Methods of Analysis 304

20.5 Early Experiments in Stability Augmentation 305

20.5.1 The Boeing B-47 Yaw Damper 305

20.5.2 The Northrop YB-49 Yaw Damper 306

20.5.3 The Northrop F-89 Sideslip Stability Augmentor 308

20.6 Root Locus Methods of Analysis 308

20.7 Transfer-Function Numerators 310

20.8 Transfer-Function Dipoles 310

20.9 Command Augmentation Systems 310

20.9.1 Roll-Ratcheting 311

20.10 Superaugmentation, or Augmentation for Unstable Airplanes 312

20.11 Propulsion-Controlled Aircraft 314

20.12 The Advent of Digital Stability Augmentation 316

20.13 Practical Problems with Digital Systems 316

20.14 Tine Domain and Linear Quadratic Optimization 316

20.15 Linear Quadratic Gaussian Controllers 317

20.16 Failed Applications of Optimal Control 319

20.17 Robust Controllers, Adaptive Systems 320

20.18 Robust Controllers, Singular Value Analysis 321

20.19 Decoupled Controls 321

20.20 Integrated Thrust Modulation and Vectoring 322

21 Flying Qualities Research Moves with the Times 324

21.1 Empirical Approaches to Pilot-Induced Oscillations 324

21.2 Compensatory Operation and Model Categories 326

21.3 Crossover Model 327

21.4 Pilot Equalization for the Crossover Model 327

21.5 Algorithmic (Linear Optimal Control) Model 327

21.6 The Crossover Model and Pilot-Induced Oscillations 328

21.7 Gibson Approach 330

21.8 Neal-Smith Approach 330

21.9 Bandwidth-Phase Delay Criteria 331

21.10 Landing Approach and Turn Studies 332

21.11 Implications for Modern Transport Airplanes 333

22 Challenge of Stealth Aerodynamics 335

22.1 Faceted Airframe Issues 335

22.2 Parallel-Line Planform Issues 337

22.3 Shielded Vertical Tails and Leading-Edge Flaps 338

22.4 Fighters Without Vertical Tails 340

23 Very Large Aircraft 341

23.1 The Effect of Higher Wing Loadings 341

23.2 The Effect of Folding Wings 341

23.3 Altitude Response During Landing Approach 342

23.4 Longitudinal Dynamics 342

23.5 Roll Response of Large Airplanes 343

23.6 Large Airplanes with Reduced-Static Longitudinal Stability 343

23.7 Large Supersonic Airplanes 343

24 Work Still to Be Done 345.

Notes:

Includes bibliographical references (pages 357-376) and index.

ISBN:

0521809924

OCLC:

48383471

Online:

Publisher description