Toxicological chemistry and biochemistry / Stanley E. Manahan.

Format:

Book

Author/Creator:

Manahan, Stanley E.

Language:

English

Subjects (All):

Toxicological chemistry.

Environmental chemistry.

Biochemical toxicology.

Chemistry, Analytical.

Toxicology.

Environmental Microbiology.

Medical Subjects:

Chemistry, Analytical.

Toxicology.

Environmental Microbiology.

Physical Description:

425 pages : illustrations ; 27 cm

Edition:

Third edition.

Other Title:

Previous ed. published under title: Toxicological chemistry

Place of Publication:

Boca Raton, Fla. : Lewis Publishers, [2003]

Summary:

Thoroughly updated and expanded to reflect recent advances in important areas of research, this unique book bridges the gap between toxicology and chemistry at a level understandable by a wide spectrum of readers. Toxicological Chemistry and Biochemistry, Third Edition begins by outlining the basic concepts of general, organic, and environmental chemistry and biochemistry needed to understand the topics in the book. It goes on to discuss biodegradation, bioaccumulation, and biochemical processes that occur in water and soil and describes xenobiotics analysis for determining toxicants and their metabolites in blood and other biological materials. The new chapter on genetic aspects explains the ways in which chemical damage to DNA can cause mutations, cancer, and other toxic effects on specific body systems. The author also considers the role of genetics in determining individual susceptibilities to various toxicants. The second half of the book is devoted to the toxicological chemistry and biochemistry of various classes of chemical compounds. Toxicological Chemistry and Biochemistry, Third Edition retains the basic information and structure that made the first two editions popular with students and industry professionals, while enhancing the usefulness of the book and modernizing it in important areas. Review questions and supplementary references at the end of each chapter round out the third edition of this best-selling work.

Contents:

Chapter 1 Chemistry and Organic Chemistry

1.2 Elements 1

1.2.1 Subatomic Particles and Atoms 2

1.2.3 Atom Nucleus and Electron Cloud 3

1.2.4 Isotopes 3

1.2.5 Important Elements 3

1.2.6 The Periodic Table 4

1.2.7 Electrons in Atoms 6

1.2.8 Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids 6

1.3 Chemical Bonding 7

1.3.1 Chemical Compounds 7

1.3.2 Molecular Structure 8

1.3.3 Ionic Bonds 8

1.3.4 Summary of Chemical Compounds and the Ionic Bond 9

1.3.5 Molecular Mass 9

1.3.6 Oxidation State 10

1.4 Chemical Reactions and Equations 10

1.4.1 Reaction Rates 11

1.5 Solutions 11

1.5.1 Solution Concentration 11

1.5.2 Water as a Solvent 12

1.5.3 Solutions of Acids and Bases 12

1.5.4 Colloidal Suspensions 14

1.6 Organic Chemistry 14

1.6.1 Molecular Geometry in Organic Chemistry 15

1.7 Hydrocarbons 15

1.7.1 Alkanes 15

1.7.2 Alkenes and Alkynes 20

1.7.3 Alkenes and Cis-trans Isomerism 21

1.7.4 Condensed Structural Formulas 21

1.7.5 Aromatic Hydrocarbons 21

1.8 Organic Functional Groups and Classes of Organic Compounds 23

1.8.1 Organooxygen Compounds 24

1.8.2 Organonitrogen Compounds 25

1.8.3 Organohalide Compounds 27

1.8.4 Organosulfur Compounds 30

1.8.5 Organophosphorus Compounds 32

1.9 Optical Isomerism 34

1.10 Synthetic Polymers 34

Chapter 2 Environmental Chemistry

2.1 Environmental Science and Environmental Chemistry 39

2.1.1 The Environment 39

2.1.2 Environmental Chemistry 41

2.2 Water 42

2.3 Aquatic Chemistry 44

2.3.1 Oxidation-Reduction 44

2.3.2 Complexation and Chelation 45

2.3.3 Water Interactions with Other Phases 45

2.3.4 Water Pollutants 45

2.3.5 Water Treatment 46

2.4 The Geosphere 46

2.4.1 Solids in the Geosphere 46

2.5 Soil 47

2.6 Geochemistry and Soil Chemistry 49

2.6.1 Physical and Chemical Aspects of Weathering 49

2.6.2 Soil Chemistry 50

2.7 The Atmosphere 51

2.8 Atmospheric Chemistry 52

2.8.1 Gaseous Oxides in the Atmosphere 53

2.8.2 Hydrocarbons and Photochemical Smog 54

2.8.3 Particulate Matter 54

2.9 The Biosphere 55

2.10 The Anthrosphere and Green Chemistry 55

2.10.1 Green Chemistry 56

Chapter 3 Biochemistry

3.1 Biochemistry 59

3.1.1 Biomolecules 59

3.2 Biochemistry and the Cell 60

3.2.1 Major Cell Features 60

3.3 Proteins 61

3.3.1 Protein Structure 64

3.3.2 Denaturation of Proteins 65

3.4 Carbohydrates 65

3.5 Lipids 66

3.6 Enzymes 69

3.7 Nucleic Acids 72

3.7.1 Nucleic Acids in Protein Synthesis 75

3.7.2 Modified DNA 75

3.8 Recombinant DNA and Genetic Engineering 76

3.9 Metabolic Processes 76

3.9.1 Energy-Yielding Processes 76

Chapter 4 Metabolic Processes

4.1 Metabolism in Environmental Biochemistry 79

4.1.1 Metabolism Occurs in Cells 79

4.1.2 Pathways of Substances and Their Metabolites in the Body 79

4.2 Digestion 80

4.2.1 Carbohydrate Digestion 81

4.2.2 Digestion of Fats 82

4.2.3 Digestion of Proteins 83

4.3 Metabolism of Carbohydrates, Fats, and Proteins 83

4.3.1 An Overview of Catabolism 83

4.3.2 Carbohydrate Metabolism 85

4.3.3 Metabolism of Fats 85

4.3.4 Metabolism of Proteins 85

4.4 Energy Utilization by Metabolic Processes 87

4.4.1 High-Energy Chemical Species 87

4.4.2 Glycolysis 88

4.4.3 Citric Acid Cycle 89

4.4.4 Electron Transfer in the Electron Transfer Chain 90

4.4.5 Electron Carriers 91

4.4.6 Overall Reaction for Aerobic Respiration 91

4.4.7 Fermentation 92

4.5 Using Energy to Put Molecules Together: Anabolic Reactions 92

4.6 Metabolism and Toxicity 94

4.6.1 Stereochemistry and Xenobiotics Metabolism 94

Chapter 5 Environmental Biological Processes and Ecotoxicology

5.2 Toxicants 98

5.3 Pathways of Toxicants into Ecosystems 99

5.3.1 Transfers of Toxicants between Environmental Spheres 100

5.3.2 Transfers of Toxicants to Organisms 101

5.4 Bioconcentration 102

5.4.1 Variables in Bioconcentration 103

5.4.2 Biotransfer from Sediments 103

5.5 Bioconcentration and Biotransfer Factors 103

5.5.1 Bioconcentration Factor 103

5.5.2 Biotransfer Factor 105

5.5.3 Bioconcentration by Vegetation 105

5.6 Biodegradation 105

5.6.1 Biochemical Aspects of Biodegradation 106

5.6.2 Cometabolism 107

5.6.3 General Factors in Biodegradation 107

5.6.4 Biodegradability 108

5.7 Biomarkers 108

5.8 Endocrine Disrupters and Developmental Toxicants 109

5.9 Effects of Toxicants on Populations 110

5.10 Effects of Toxicants on Ecosystems 110

Chapter 6 Toxicology

6.1.1 Poisons and Toxicology 115

6.1.2 History of Toxicology 115

6.1.3 Future of Toxicology 116

6.1.4 Specialized Areas of Toxicology 116

6.1.5 Toxicological Chemistry 116

6.2 Kinds of Toxic Substances 117

6.3 Toxicity-Influencing Factors 117

6.3.1 Classification of Factors 117

6.3.2 Form of the Toxic Substance and Its Matrix 118

6.3.3 Circumstances of Exposure 119

6.3.4 The Subject 119

6.4 Exposure to Toxic Substances 120

6.4.1 Percutaneous Exposure 121

6.4.2 Barriers to Skin Absorption 121

6.4.3 Gastrointestinal Tract 123

6.4.4 Mouth, Esophagus, and Stomach 123

6.4.5 Intestines 123

6.4.6 The Intestinal Tract and the Liver 123

6.5 Dose-Response Relationships 124

6.5.1 Thresholds 125

6.6 Relative Toxicities 125

6.6.1 Nonlethal Effects 125

6.7 Reversibility and Sensitivity 127

6.7.1 Hypersensitivity and Hyposensitivity 127

6.8 Xenobiotic and Endogenous Substances 128

6.8.1 Examples of Endogenous Substances 128

6.9 Kinetic and Nonkinetic Toxicology 129

6.9.1 Kinetic Toxicology 129

6.10 Receptors and Toxic Substances 129

6.10.1 Receptors 129

6.11 Phases of Toxicity 130

6.12 Toxification and Detoxification 131

6.12.1 Synergism, Potentiation, and Antagonism 132

6.13 Behavioral and Physiological Responses 132

6.13.1 Vital Signs 132

6.13.2 Skin Symptoms 134

6.13.3 Odors 134

6.13.4 Eyes 135

6.13.5 Mouth 135

6.13.6 Gastrointestinal Tract 135

6.13.7 Central Nervous System 135

6.14 Reproductive and Developmental Effects 135

Chapter 7 Toxicological Chemistry

7.1.1 Chemical Nature of Toxicants 139

7.1.2 Biochemical Transformations 140

7.2 Metabolic Reactions of Xenobiotic Compounds 141

7.2.1 Phase I and Phase II Reactions 142

7.3 Phase I Reactions 143

7.3.1 Oxidation Reactions 143

7.3.2 Hydroxylation 144

7.3.3 Epoxide Hydration 144

7.3.4 Oxidation of Noncarbon Elements 144

7.3.5 Alcohol Dehydrogenation 145

7.3.6 Metabolic Reductions 147

7.3.7 Metabolic Hydrolysis Reactions 148

7.3.8 Metabolic Dealkylation 148

7.3.9 Removal of Halogen 149

7.4 Phase II Reactions of Toxicants 149

7.4.1 Conjugation by Glucuronides 150

7.4.2 Conjugation by Glutathione 152

7.4.3 Conjugation by Sulfate 153

7.4.4 Acetylation 154

7.4.5 Conjugation by Amino Acids 155

7.4.6 Methylation 156

7.5 Biochemical Mechanisms of Toxicity 157

7.6 Interference with Enzyme Action 158

7.6.1 Inhibition of Metalloenzymes 159

7.6.2 Inhibition by Organic Compounds 159

7.7 Biochemistry of Mutagenesis 159

7.8 Biochemistry of Carcinogenesis 161

7.8.1 Alkylating Agents in Carcinogenesis 163

7.8.2 Testing for Carcinogens 163

7.9 Ionizing Radiation 163

Chapter 8 Genetic Aspects of Toxicology

8.1.1 Chromosomes 167

8.1.2 Genes and Protein Synthesis 169

8.1.3 Toxicological Importance of Nucleic Acids 169

8.2 Destructive Genetic Alterations 170

8.2.1 Gene Mutations 170

8.2.2 Chromosome Structural Alterations, Aneuploidy, and Polyploidy 170

8.2.3 Genetic Alteration of Germ Cells and Somatic Cells 171

8.3 Toxicant Damage to DNA 171

8.4 Predicting and Testing for Genotoxic Substances 173

8.4.1 Tests for Mutagenic Effects 173

8.4.2 The

Bruce Ames Test and Related Tests 175

8.4.3 Cytogenetic Assays 175

8.4.4 Transgenic Test Organisms 176

8.5 Genetic Susceptibilities and Resistance to Toxicants 176

8.6 Toxicogenomics 177

8.6.1 Genetic Susceptibility to Toxic Effects of Pharmaceuticals 178

Chapter 9 Toxic Responses

9.2 Respiratory System 184

9.3 Skin 186

9.3.1 Toxic Responses of Skin 187

9.3.2 Phototoxic Responses of Skin 188

9.3.3 Damage to Skin Structure and Pigmentation 188

9.3.4 Skin Cancer 189

9.4 The Liver 189

9.5 Blood and the Cardiovascular System 192

9.5.1 Blood 192

9.5.2 Hypoxia 194

9.5.3 Leukocytes and Leukemia 195

9.5.4 Cardiotoxicants 195

9.5.5 Vascular Toxicants 196

9.6 Immune System 196

9.7 Endocrine System 198

9.8 Nervous System 200

9.9 Reproductive System 203

9.10 Developmental Toxicology and Teratology 205

9.10.1 Thalidomide 206

9.10.2 Accutane 206

9.10.3 Fetal Alcohol Syndrome 206

9.11 Kidney and Bladder 206

Chapter 10 Toxic Elements

10.2 Toxic Elements and the Periodic Table 211

10.3 Essential Elements 212

10.4 Metals in an Organism 212

10.4.1 Complex Ions and Chelates 212

10.4.2 Metal Toxicity 213

10.4.3 Lithium 214

10.4.4 Beryllium 215

10.4.5 Vanadium 215

10.4.6 Chromium 216

10.4.7 Cobalt 216

10.4.8 Nickel 217

10.4.9 Cadmium 217

10.4.10 Mercury 218

10.4.11 Lead 220

10.4.12 Defenses Against Heavy Metal Poisoning 222

10.5 Metalloids: Arsenic 223

10.5.1 Sources and Uses 223

10.5.2 Exposure and Absorption of Arsenic 224

10.5.3 Metabolism, Transport, and Toxic Effects of Arsenic 224

10.6 Nonmetals 225

10.6.1 Oxygen and Ozone 225

10.6.2 Phosphorus 228

10.6.3 The Halogens 228

10.6.4 Radionuclides 230

Chapter 11 Toxic Inorganic Compounds

11.1.1 Chapter Organization 235

11.2 Toxic Inorganic Carbon Compounds 235

11.2.1 Cyanide 235

11.2.2 Carbon Monoxide 237

11.2.3 Biochemical Action of Carbon Monoxide 237

11.2.4 Cyanogen, Cyanamide, and Cyanates 238

11.3 Toxic Inorganic Nitrogen Compounds 238

11.3.1 Ammonia 238

11.3.2 Hydrazine 238

11.3.3 Nitrogen Oxides 239

11.3.4 Effects of NO[subscript 2] Poisoning 239

11.3.5 Nitrous Oxide 239

11.4 Hydrogen Halides 240

11.4.1 Hydrogen Fluoride 240

11.4.2 Hydrogen Chloride 240

11.4.3 Hydrogen Bromide and Hydrogen Iodide 240

11.5 Interhalogen Compounds and Halogen Oxides 240

11.5.1 Interhalogen Compounds 241

11.5.2 Halogen Oxides 241

11.5.3 Hypochlorous Acid and Hypochlorites 242

11.5.4 Perchlorates 242

11.6 Nitrogen Compounds of the Halogens 242

11.6.1 Nitrogen Halides 242

11.6.2 Azides 243

11.6.3 Monochloramine and Dichloramine 243

11.7 Inorganic Compounds of Silicon 243

11.7.1 Silica 243

11.7.2 Asbestos 244

11.7.3 Silanes 244

11.7.4 Silicon Halides and Halohydrides 245

11.8 Inorganic Phosphorus Compounds 245

11.8.1 Phosphine 245

11.8.2 Phosphorus Pentoxide 245

11.8.3 Phosphorus Halides 246

11.8.4 Phosphorus Oxyhalides 246

11.9 Inorganic Compounds of Sulfur 246

11.9.1 Hydrogen Sulfide 246

11.9.2 Sulfur Dioxide and Sulfites 247

11.9.3 Sulfuric Acid 248

11.9.4 Carbon Disulfide 248

11.9.5 Miscellaneous Inorganic Sulfur Compounds 249

Chapter 12 Organometallics and Organometalloids

12.1 The Nature of Organometallic and Organometalloid Compounds 253

12.2 Classification of Organometallic Compounds 253

12.2.1 Ionically Bonded Organic Groups 254

12.2.2 Organic Groups Bonded with Classical Covalent Bonds 254

12.2.3 Organometallic Compounds with Dative Covalent Bonds 256

12.2.4 Organometallic Compounds Involving [pi]-Electron Donors 257

12.3 Mixed Organometallic Compounds 257

12.4 Organometallic Compound Toxicity 258

12.5 Compounds of Group 1A Metals 258

12.5.1 Lithium Compounds 258

12.5.2 Compounds of Group 1A Metals Other Than Lithium 259

12.6 Compounds of Group 2A Metals 260

12.6.1 Magnesium 260

12.6.2 Calcium, Strontium, and Barium 261

12.7 Compounds of Group 2B Metals 261

12.7.1 Zinc 261

12.7.2 Cadmium 263

12.7.3 Mercury 263

12.8 Organotin and Organogermanium Compounds 264

12.8.1 Toxicology of Organotin Compounds 265

12.8.2 Organogermanium Compounds 266

12.9 Organolead Compounds 266

12.9.1 Toxicology of Organolead Compounds 266

12.10 Organoarsenic Compounds 267

12.10.1 Organoarsenic Compounds from Biological Processes 267

12.10.2 Synthetic Organoarsenic Compounds 268

12.10.3 Toxicities of Organoarsenic Compounds 269

12.11 Organoselenium and Organotellurium Compounds 270

12.11.1 Organoselenium Compounds 270

12.11.2 Organotellurium Compounds 270

Chapter 13 Toxic Organic Compounds and Hydrocarbons

13.2 Classification of Hydrocarbons 273

13.2.1 Alkanes 273

13.2.2 Unsaturated Nonaromatic Hydrocarbons 275

13.2.3 Aromatic Hydrocarbons 275

13.3 Toxicology of Alkanes 276

13.3.1 Methane and Ethane 276

13.3.2 Propane and Butane 277

13.3.3 Pentane through Octane 277

13.3.4 Alkanes above Octane 278

13.3.5 Solid and Semisolid Alkanes 278

13.3.6 Cyclohexane 278

13.4 Toxicology of Unsaturated Nonaromatic Hydrocarbons 279

13.4.1 Propylene 280

13.4.2 1,3-Butadiene 280

13.4.3 Butylenes 282

13.4.4 Alpha-Olefins 282

13.4.5 Cyclopentadiene and Dicyclopentadiene 282

13.4.6 Acetylene 283

13.5 Benzene and Its Derivatives 283

13.5.1 Benzene 283

13.5.2 Toluene, Xylenes, and Ethylbenzene 285

13.5.3 Styrene 286

13.6 Naphthalene 287

13.6.1 Metabolism of Naphthalene 288

13.6.2 Toxic Effects of Naphthalene 288

13.7 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons 288

13.7.1 PAH Metabolism 289

Chapter 14 Organooxygen Compounds

14.1.1 Oxygen-Containing Functional Groups 293

14.2 Alcohols 293

14.2.1 Methanol 293

14.2.2 Ethanol 295

14.2.3 Ethylene Glycol 296

14.2.4 The Higher Alcohols 296

14.3 Phenols 297

14.3.1 Properties and Uses of Phenols 297

14.3.2 Toxicology of Phenols 298

14.4 Oxides 298

14.5 Formaldehyde 299

14.5.1 Properties and Uses of Formaldehyde 300

14.5.2 Toxicity of Formaldehyde and Formalin 300

14.6 Aldehydes and Ketones 300

14.6.1 Toxicities of Aldehydes and Ketones 301

14.7 Carboxylic Acids 302

14.7.1 Toxicology of Carboxylic Acids 302

14.8 Ethers 303

14.8.1 Examples and Uses of Ethers 303

14.8.2 Toxicities of Ethers 304

14.9 Acid Anhydrides 304

14.9.1 Toxicological Considerations 305

14.10 Esters 305

14.10.1 Toxicities of Esters 306

Chapter 15 Organonitrogen Compounds

15.2 Nonaromatic Amines 309

15.2.1 Lower Aliphatic Amines 309

15.2.2 Fatty Amines 310

15.2.3 Alkyl Polyamines 310

15.2.4 Cyclic Amines 311

15.3 Carbocyclic Aromatic Amines 311

15.3.1 Aniline 311

15.3.2 Benzidine 313

15.3.3 Naphthylamines 313

15.4 Pyridine and Its Derivatives 314

15.5 Nitriles 314

15.6 Nitro Compounds 315

15.6.1 Nitro Alcohols and Nitro Phenols 316

15.6.2 Dinoseb 316

15.7 Nitrosamines 317

15.8 Isocyanates and Methyl Isocyanate 318

15.9 Pesticidal Compounds 320

15.9.1 Carbamates 320

15.9.2 Bipyridilium Compounds 321

15.10 Alkaloids 322

Chapter 16 Organohalide Compounds

16.1.1 Biogenic Organohalides 327

16.2 Alkyl Halides 328

16.2.1 Toxicities of Alkyl Halides 328

16.2.2 Toxic Effects of Carbon Tetrachloride on the Liver 329

16.2.3 Other Alkyl Halides 330

16.2.4 Hydrochlorofluorocarbons 330

16.2.5 Halothane 331

16.3 Alkenyl Halides 332

16.3.1 Uses of Alkenyl Halides 332

16.3.2 Toxic Effects of Alkenyl Halides 333

16.3.3 Hexachlorocyclopentadiene 335

16.4 Aryl Halides 336

16.4.1 Properties and Uses of Aryl Halides 336

16.4.2 Toxic Effects of Aryl Halides 337

16.5 Organohalide Insecticides 338

16.5.1 Toxicities of Organohalide Insecticides 338

16.5.2 Hexachlorocyclohexane 340

16.5.3 Toxaphene 340

16.6 Noninsecticidal Organohalide Pesticides 341

16.6.1 Toxic Effects of Chlorophenoxy Herbicides 342

16.6.2 Toxicity of TCDD 342

16.6.3 Alachlor 342

16.6.4 Chlorinated Phenols 343

16.6.5 Hexachlorophene 344

Chapter 17 Organosulfur Compounds

17.1.1 Classes of Organosulfur Compounds 347

17.1.2 Reactions

of Organic Sulfur 347

17.2 Thiols, Sulfides, and Disulfides 349

17.2.1 Thiols 349

17.2.2 Thiols as Antidotes for Heavy Metal Poisoning 350

17.2.3 Sulfides and Disulfides 350

17.2.4 Organosulfur Compounds in Skunk Spray 351

17.2.5 Carbon Disulfide and Carbon Oxysulfide 351

17.3 Organosulfur Compounds Containing Nitrogen or Phosphorus 352

17.3.1 Thiourea Compounds 352

17.3.2 Thiocyanates 353

17.3.3 Disulfiram 354

17.3.4 Cyclic Sulfur and Nitrogen Organic Compounds 354

17.3.5 Dithiocarbamates 355

17.3.6 Phosphine Sulfides 355

17.3.7 Phosphorothionate and Phosphorodithioate Esters 356

17.4 Sulfoxides and Sulfones 356

17.5 Sulfonic Acids, Salts, and Esters 357

17.6 Organic Esters of Sulfuric Acid 358

17.7 Miscellaneous Organosulfur Compounds 359

17.7.1 Sulfur Mustards 359

17.7.2 Sulfur in Pesticides 359

17.7.3 Sulfa Drugs 360

17.8 Organically Bound Selenium 360

Chapter 18 Organophosphorus Compounds

18.1.1 Phosphine 363

18.2 Alkyl and Aryl Phosphines 363

18.3 Phosphine Oxides and Sulfides 365

18.4 Phosphonic and Phosphorous Acid Esters 365

18.5 Organophosphate Esters 366

18.5.1 Orthophosphates and Polyphosphates 366

18.5.2 Orthophosphate Esters 367

18.5.3 Aromatic Phosphate Esters 368

18.5.4 Tetraethylpyrophosphate 368

18.6 Phosphorothionate and Phosphorodithioate Esters 368

18.7 Organophosphate Insecticides 369

18.7.1 Chemical Formulas and Properties 369

18.7.2 Phosphate Ester Insecticides 369

18.7.3 Phosphorothionate Insecticides 371

18.7.4 Phosphorodithioate Insecticides 372

18.7.5 Toxic Actions of Organophosphate Insecticides 374

18.8 Organophosphorus Military Poisons 377

Chapter 19 Toxic Natural Products

19.2 Toxic Substances from Bacteria 384

19.2.1 In Vivo Bacterial Toxins 384

19.2.2 Bacterial Toxins Produced Outside the Body 385

19.3 Mycotoxins 385

19.3.1 Aflatoxins 386

19.3.2 Other Mycotoxins 386

19.3.3 Mushroom Toxins 387

19.4 Toxins from Protozoa 387

19.5 Toxic Substances from Plants 388

19.5.1 Nerve Toxins from Plants 389

19.5.2 Internal Organ Plant Toxins 390

19.5.3 Eye and Skin Irritants 391

19.5.4 Allergens 392

19.5.5 Mineral Accumulators 392

19.5.6 Toxic Algae 393

19.6 Insect Toxins 393

19.6.1 Bee Venom 393

19.6.2 Wasp and Hornet Venoms 394

19.6.3 Toxicities of Insect Venoms 394

19.7 Spider Toxins 394

19.7.1 Brown Recluse Spiders 394

19.7.2 Widow Spiders 394

19.7.3 Other Spiders 395

19.8 Reptile Toxins 395

19.8.1 Chemical Composition of Snake Venoms 395

19.8.2 Toxic Effects of Snake Venom 395

19.9 Nonreptile Animal Toxins 396

Chapter 20 Analysis of Xenobiotics

20.2 Indicators of Exposure to Xenobiotics 401

20.3 Determination of Metals 402

20.3.1 Direct Analysis of Metals 402

20.3.2 Metals in Wet-Ashed Blood and Urine 403

20.3.3 Extraction of Metals for Atomic Absorption Analysis 403

20.4 Determination of Nonmetals and Inorganic Compounds 403

20.5 Determination of Parent Organic Compounds 404

20.6 Measurement of Phase I and Phase II Reaction Products 404

20.6.1 Phase I Reaction Products 404

20.6.2 Phase II Reaction Products 406

20.6.3 Mercapturates 407

20.7 Determination of Adducts 407

20.8 The Promise of Immunological Methods 408.

Notes:

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN:

1566706181

OCLC:

49936160