An introduction to atmospheric radiation / K.N. Liou.

Format:

Book

Author/Creator:

Liou, Kuo-Nan

Series:

International geophysics series ; v. 84.

International geophysics series ; v. 84

Language:

English

Subjects (All):

Atmospheric radiation.

Physical Description:

xiv, 583 pages : illustrations, maps ; 24 cm.

Edition:

Second edition.

Place of Publication:

Amsterdam ; Boston : Academic Press, [2002]

Summary:

This Second Edition of An Introduction to Atmospheric Radiation has been extensively revised to address the fundamental study and quantitative measurement of the interactions of solar and terrestrial radiation with molecules, aerosols, and cloud particles in planetary atmospheres. It contains 70% new material, much of it stemming from the investigation of the atmospheric greenhouse effects of external radiative perturbations in climate systems, and the development of methodologies for inferring atmospheric and surface parameters by means of remote sensing. Liou s comprehensive treatment of the fundamentals of atmospheric radiation was developed for students, academics, and researchers in atmospheric sciences, remote sensing, and climate modeling. Key Features*Balanced treatment of fundamentals and applications*Includes over 170 illustrations to complement the concise description of each subject*Numerous examples and hands-on exercises at the end of each chapter

Contents:

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of Radiation for Atmospheric Applications

1.1 Concepts, Definitions, and Units 1

1.1.1 Electromagnetic Spectrum 1

1.1.2 Solid Angle 2

1.1.3 Basic Radiometric Quantities 4

1.1.4 Concepts of Scattering and Absorption 6

1.2 Blackbody Radiation Laws 9

1.2.1 Planck's Law 10

1.2.2 Stefan-Boltzmann Law 11

1.2.3 Wien's Displacement Law 12

1.2.4 Kirchhoff's Law 13

1.3 Absorption Line Formation and Line Shape 14

1.3.1 Line Formation 14

1.3.1.1 Bohr's Model 14

1.3.1.2 Vibrational and Rotational Transitions 16

1.3.2 Line Broadening 21

1.3.2.1 Pressure Broadening 21

1.3.2.2 Doppler Broadening 23

1.3.2.3 Voigt Profile 24

1.3.3 Breakdown of Thermodynamic Equilibrium 25

1.4 Introduction to Radiative Transfer 27

1.4.1 The Equation of Radiative Transfer 27

1.4.2 Beer-Bouguer-Lambert Law 28

1.4.3 Schwarzschild's Equation and Its Solution 29

1.4.4 The Equation of Radiative Transfer for Plane-Parallel Atmospheres 31

1.4.5 Radiative Transfer Equations for Three-Dimensional Inhomogeneous Media 33

Chapter 2 Solar Radiation at the Top of the Atmosphere

2.1 The Sun as an Energy Source 37

2.1.1 The Structure of the Sun 39

2.1.2 Solar Surface Activity: Sunspots 41

2.2 The Earth's Orbit about the Sun and Solar Insolation 44

2.2.1 Orbital Geometry 44

2.2.2 Definition of the Solar Constant 50

2.2.3 Distribution of Solar Insolation 51

2.3 Solar Spectrum and Solar Constant Determination 54

2.3.1 Solar Spectrum 54

2.3.2 Determination of the Solar Constant: Ground-Based Method 57

2.3.3 Satellite Measurements of the Solar Constant 60

Chapter 3 Absorption and Scattering of Solar Radiation in the Atmosphere

3.1 Composition and Structure of the Earth's Atmosphere 65

3.1.1 Thermal Structure 65

3.1.2 Chemical Composition 67

3.2 Atmospheric Absorption 70

3.2.1 Absorption in the Ultraviolet 73

3.2.1.1 Molecular Nitrogen 73

3.2.1.2 Molecular Oxygen 73

3.2.1.3 Ozone 75

3.2.1.4 Other Minor Gases 75

3.2.1.5 Absorption of Solar Radiation 75

3.2.2 Photochemical Processes and the Formation of Ozone Layers 79

3.2.3 Absorption in the Visible and Near Infrared 82

3.2.3.1 Molecular Oxygen and Ozone 82

3.2.3.2 Water Vapor 83

3.2.3.3 Carbon Dioxide 83

3.2.3.4 Other Minor Gases 84

3.2.3.5 Transfer of Direct Solar Flux in the Atmosphere 84

3.3 Atmospheric Scattering 87

3.3.1 Rayleigh Scattering 87

3.3.1.1 Theoretical Development 87

3.3.1.2 Phase Function, Scattering Cross Section, and Polarizability 90

3.3.1.3 Blue Sky and Sky Polarization 93

3.3.2 Light Scattering by Particulates: Approximations 96

3.3.2.1 Lorenz-Mie Scattering 96

3.3.2.2 Geometric Optics 97

3.3.2.3 Anomalous Diffraction Theory 100

3.4 Multiple Scattering and Absorption in Planetary Atmospheres 102

3.4.1 Fundamentals of Radiative Transfer 102

3.4.2 Approximations of Radiative Transfer 105

3.4.2.1 Single-Scattering Approximation 105

3.4.2.2 Diffusion Approximation 106

3.5 Atmospheric Solar Heating Rates 107

Chapter 4 Thermal Infrared Radiation Transfer in the Atmosphere

4.1 The Thermal Infrared Spectrum and the Greenhouse Effect 116

4.2 Absorption and Emission in the Atmosphere 118

4.2.1 Absorption in the Thermal Infrared 118

4.2.1.1 Water Vapor 118

4.2.1.2 Carbon Dioxide 119

4.2.1.3 Ozone 120

4.2.1.4 Methane 121

4.2.1.5 Nitrous Oxide 121

4.2.1.6 Chlorofluorocarbons 121

4.2.2 Fundamentals of Thermal Infrared Radiative Transfer 122

4.2.3 Line-by-Line (LBL) Integration 125

4.3 Correlated K-Distribution Method for Infrared Radiative Transfer 127

4.3.1 Fundamentals 127

4.3.2 Application to Nonhomogeneous Atmospheres 128

4.3.3 Numerical Procedures and Pertinent Results 132

4.3.4 Line Overlap Consideration 135

4.4 Band Models 137

4.4.1 A Single Line 137

4.4.2 Regular Band Model 139

4.4.3 Statistical Band Model 141

4.4.4 Application to Nonhomogeneous Atmospheres 144

4.5 Broadband Approaches to Flux Computations 148

4.5.1 Broadband Emissivity 148

4.5.2 Newtonian Cooling Approximation 150

4.6 Infrared Radiative Transfer in Cloudy Atmospheres 152

4.6.1 Fundamentals 152

4.6.2 Exchange of Infrared Radiation between Cloud and Surface 154

4.6.3 Two/Four-Stream Approximation 157

4.7 Atmospheric Infrared Cooling Rates 160

Chapter 5 Light Scattering by Atmospheric Particulates

5.1 Morphology of Atmospheric Particulates 169

5.2 Lorenz-Mie Theory of Light Scattering by Spherical Particles 176

5.2.1 Electromagnetic Wave Equation and Solution 176

5.2.2 Formal Scattering Solution 182

5.2.3 The Far-Field Solution and Extinction Parameters 186

5.2.4 Scattering Phase Matrix for Spherical Particles 191

5.3 Geometric Optics 195

5.3.1 Diffraction 196

5.3.2 Geometric Reflection and Refraction 200

5.3.3 Geometric Optics, Lorenz-Mie Theory, and Representative Results 209

5.4 Light Scattering by Ice Crystals: A Unified Theory 215

5.4.1 Geometric Optics for Ice Crystals 215

5.4.1.1 Conventional Approach 215

5.4.1.2 Improved Geometric Optics Approach 217

5.4.1.3 Absorption Effects in Geometric Optics 219

5.4.1.4 Monte Carlo Method for Ray Tracing 222

5.4.2 Introduction to the Finite-Difference Time Domain Method 224

5.4.3 Scattering Phase Matrix for Nonspherical Ice Particles 225

5.4.4 Presentation of a Unified Theory for Light Scattering by Ice Crystals 228

5.4.4.1 The Essence of the Unified Theory 228

5.4.4.2 Theory versus Measurement and Representative Results 231

5.5 Light Scattering by Nonspherical Aerosols 235

5.5.1 Finite-Difference Time Domain Method 237

5.5.2 T-Matrix Method 246

5.5.3 Note on Light-Scattering Measurements for Nonspherical Aerosols 249

Chapter 6 Principles of Radiative Transfer in Planetary Atmospheres

6.1.1 A Brief History of Radiative Transfer 257

6.1.2 Basic Equations for the Plane-Parallel Condition 258

6.2 Discrete-Ordinates Method for Radiative Transfer 261

6.2.1 General Solution for Isotropic Scattering 262

6.2.2 The Law of Diffuse Reflection for Semi-infinite Isotropic Scattering Atmospheres 265

6.2.3 General Solution for Anisotropic Scattering 267

6.2.4 Application to Nonhomogeneous Atmospheres 270

6.3 Principles of Invariance 274

6.3.1 Definitions of Scattering Parameters 274

6.3.2 Principles of Invariance for Semi-infinite Atmospheres 277

6.3.3 Principles of Invariance for Finite Atmospheres 280

6.3.4 The X and Y Functions 285

6.3.5 Inclusion of Surface Reflection 287

6.4 Adding Method for Radiative Transfer 290

6.4.1 Definitions of Physical Parameters 290

6.4.2 Adding Equations 292

6.4.3 Equivalence of the Adding Method and the Principles of Invariance 295

6.4.4 Extension to Nonhomogeneous Atmospheres for Internal Fields 297

6.4.5 Similarity between the Adding and Discrete-Ordinates Methods 299

6.5 Approximations for Radiative Transfer 302

6.5.1 Successive-Orders-of-Scattering Approximation 302

6.5.2 Two-Stream and Eddington's Approximations 303

6.5.3 Delta-Function Adjustment and Similarity Principle 310

6.5.4 Four-Stream Approximation 313

6.6 Radiative Transfer Including Polarization 317

6.6.1 Representation of a Light Beam 317

6.6.2 Formulation 322

6.7 Advanced Topics in Radiative Transfer 325

6.7.1 Horizontally Oriented Ice Particles 325

6.7.2 Three-Dimensional Nonhomogeneous Clouds 329

6.7.2.1 Monte Carlo Method 332

6.7.2.2 Successive-Orders-of-Scattering (SOS) Approach 334

6.7.2.3 Delta Four-Term (Diffusion) Approximation 337

6.7.3 Spherical Atmospheres 339

Chapter 7 Application of Radiative Transfer Principles to Remote Sensing

7.2 Remote Sensing Using Transmitted Sunlight 350

7.2.1 Determination of Aerosol Optical Depth and Size Distribution 351

7.2.1.1 Direct Linear Inversion 355

7.2.1.2 Constrained Linear

Inversion 357

7.2.2 Determination of Total Ozone Concentration 358

7.2.3 Limb Extinction Technique 360

7.3 Remote Sensing Using Reflected Sunlight 361

7.3.1 Satellite-Sun Geometry and Theoretical Foundation 361

7.3.2 Satellite Remote Sensing of Ozone 366

7.3.3 Satellite Remote Sensing of Aerosols 367

7.3.4 Satellite Remote Sensing of Land Surfaces 369

7.3.5 Cloud Optical Depth and Particle Size 370

7.3.5.1 Bidirectional Reflectance 371

7.3.5.2 Polarization 377

7.3.5.3 Reflected Line Spectrum 379

7.4 Remote Sensing Using Emitted Infrared Radiation 383

7.4.1 Theoretical Foundation 383

7.4.2 Surface Temperature Determination 385

7.4.3 Remote Sensing of Temperature Profiles 387

7.4.3.1 Nonlinear Iteration Method 391

7.4.3.2 Minimum Variance Method: Hybrid Retrieval 392

7.4.3.3 Cloud Removal 396

7.4.4 Remote Sensing of Water Vapor and Trace Gas Profiles 398

7.4.4.1 Water Vapor from the 6.3 [mu]m Vibrational-Rotational Band 398

7.4.4.2 Limb Scanning Technique 399

7.4.5 Infrared Remote Sensing of Clouds 403

7.4.5.1 Carbon Dioxide Slicing Technique for Cloud Top Pressure and Emissivity 403

7.4.5.2 Emitted Radiance for Cloud Cover 406

7.4.5.3 Retrieval of Cirrus Cloud Optical Depth and Temperature 406

7.4.5.4 Information Content in Infrared Line Spectrum 408

7.4.6 Remote Sensing of Infrared Cooling Rate and Surface Flux 409

7.5 Remote Sensing Using Emitted Microwave Radiation 414

7.5.1 Microwave Spectrum and Microwave Radiative Transfer 414

7.5.2 Rainfall Rate and Water Vapor Determination from Microwave Emission 419

7.5.3 Temperature Retrieval from Microwave Sounders 423

7.6 Remote Sensing Using Laser and Microwave Energy 427

7.6.1 Backscattering Equation: Theoretical Foundation 427

7.6.2 Lidar Differential Absorption and Depolarization Techniques 430

7.6.2.1 Differential Absorption Technique 430

7.6.2.2 Principle of Depolarization 431

7.6.3 Millimeter-Wave Radar for Cloud Study 434

Chapter 8 Radiation and Climate

8.2 Radiation Budget of the Earth-Atmosphere System 444

8.2.1 Observational Considerations 444

8.2.1.1 Black and White Sensors Based on Radiative Equilibrium 445

8.2.1.2 Scanning Radiometer and Angular Models 447

8.2.2 Radiation Budget Viewed from Space 449

8.2.3 Cloud Radiative Forcing Derived from ERB Data 451

8.2.4 Radiative Heating/Cooling Rates of the Atmosphere 454

8.2.5 Radiation Budget at the Surface 458

8.3 Radiative and Convective Atmospheres 459

8.3.1 Radiative Equilibrium 459

8.3.1.1 A Global Model 459

8.3.1.2 A Vertical Model 462

8.3.2 Radiative and Convective Equilibrium 464

8.3.2.1 Heat Budget of the Earth-Atmosphere System 464

8.3.2.2 Convective Adjustment 466

8.4 Radiation in One-Dimensional Climate Models 469

8.4.1 Carbon Dioxide Greenhouse Effects 469

8.4.2 Ozone and Other Greenhouse Gases 472

8.4.2.1 Ozone 472

8.4.2.2 Methane 473

8.4.2.3 Nitrous Oxide 474

8.4.2.4 Halocarbons 475

8.4.3 Radiation Feedback Consideration 475

8.4.4 Aerosols and Radiation 477

8.4.5 Cloud Radiative Forcing 480

8.4.5.1 Cloud Position and Cover 480

8.4.5.2 Cloud Microphysics 481

8.4.5.3 Aerosols/Clouds and Precipitation 483

8.5 Radiation in Energy Balance Climate Models 485

8.5.1 Energy Budget of the Atmosphere and the Surface 485

8.5.1.1 Atmosphere and Oceans 485

8.5.1.2 Surface Energy Budget 489

8.5.2 Radiative Forcing in Energy Balance Climate Models 491

8.5.2.1 Linear Heating Approach 492

8.5.2.2 Diffusion Approach 495

8.5.3 Solar Insolation Perturbation 497

8.6 Radiation in Global Climate Models 499

8.6.1 An Introduction to General Circulation Modeling 499

8.6.2 Cloud Radiative Forcing in Global Climate Models 503

8.6.2.1 Internal Radiative Forcing 504

8.6.2.2 Greenhouse Warming and Cloud Cover Feedback 505

8.6.2.3 Greenhouse Warming and Cloud Liquid/Ice Water Content Feedback 507

8.6.2.4 Cloud Particle Size Feedback 510

8.6.3 Direct Radiative Forcing: Aerosols and Contrails 510

8.6.3.1 Aerosols 511

8.6.3.2 Contrails 513

8.6.4 Radiation in El Nino-Southern Oscillation 514

Appendix A Derivation of the Planck Function 523

Appendix B The Schrodinger Wave Equation 525

Appendix C Spherical Geometry 527

Appendix D Complex Index of Refraction, Dispersion of Light, and Lorentz-Lorenz Formula 529

Appendix E Properties of the Legendre Polynomials and Addition Theorem 533

Appendix G Standard Atmospheric Profiles 537

Previous Volumes in International Geophysics Series 579.

Notes:

Includes bibliographical references (pages 543-555) and index.

ISBN:

0124514510

OCLC:

49853496