Active sensors for local planning in mobile robotics / Penelope Probert Smith.

Format:

Book

Author/Creator:

Smith, Penelope Probert.

Series:

World Scientific series in robotics and intelligent systems ; v. 26.

World Scientific series in robotics and intelligent systems ; v. 26

Language:

English

Subjects (All):

Mobile robots.

Detectors.

Signal processing.

Physical Description:

xvii, 317 pages : illustrations ; 22 cm.

Place of Publication:

River Edge, NJ : World Scientific, [2001]

Summary:

Drawing on research she has been engaged with, and describing real sensors and systems, Smith (Oxford U.) summarizes the state of the art in active range and vision sensing for robots, and suggest some new developments. She begins with the demands for local planning, the problem of finding a reliable architecture to handle complexity and adaptability, and active sensors. Then she discusses millimeter wave sensors, sensing at optical wavelengths, and some general issues in sensor management. Annotation copyrighted by Book News, Inc., Portland, OR.

Contents:

1.1 Architectures for Planning and Perception 3

1.2 Range Sensing Technologies 8

1.3 Planning Demands 9

Chapter 2 The Mapping and Localisation Problem 13

2.1 Simultaneous Localisation and Map Building 13

2.1.1 The Map-Building Process 14

2.1.2 The Coupling of Map Estimates 15

2.1.3 Simultaneous Localisation and Map-Building with the EKF 17

Chapter 3 Perception at Millimetre Wavelengths 21

3.1 Sensor Operation 22

3.2 The Sensor 24

3.3 Antenna Properties 25

3.3.1 The Circular Antenna 26

3.4 Altering Aperture Shape 29

3.4.1 Antenna Arrays 32

3.4.2 Focused Transducers 33

3.5 Target Properties 33

3.5.1 Smooth Surfaces: The Specular Model 34

3.5.2 Rough Surfaces 35

3.5.3 Scattering Cross Section 36

3.6 Attenuation in the Transmission Medium 37

3.6.1 Beam Spreading 38

3.6.2 Losses 38

Chapter 4 Advanced Sonar: Principles of Operation and Interpretation 41

4.1 Single Return Sonar 41

4.1.1 Mapping and Navigation Using Single Return Sonar 44

4.1.1.1 Occupancy Grid Representation 44

4.1.2 Landmark Based Mapping 46

4.1.3 The Geometric Target Primitives 47

4.2 Advanced Sonar: The Sonar Signature 47

4.2.1 Range Signature 48

4.2.2 Orientation Signature 50

4.2.3 Rough Surfaces 51

4.3 Acquiring the Sonar Signature 51

4.3.1 Single Frequency Sonar 52

4.3.1.1 Improving Range Accuracy: The Correlation Receiver 52

4.3.2 Pulse Compression Sonar 54

4.3.3 Continuous Wave Frequency Modulated Sonar 56

4.3.4 Doppler Effects 60

Chapter 5 Smooth and Rough Target Modelling: Examples in Mapping and Texture Classification 61

5.1 Power Received by the Transducer 61

5.2 Smooth Surface Model 62

5.2.1 Backscattering Coefficient 62

5.2.2 The Target Geometry Coefficient 63

5.2.3 Mapping Experiments 63

5.2.3.1 Finding the Position of Each Feature 64

5.2.3.2 Finding Geometric Type 65

5.2.3.3 Data Integration 65

5.3 Rough Surface Planar Models 68

5.3.1 Backscattering Coefficient of Rough Surface 69

5.3.1.1 Finding Position of Rough Surfaces 70

5.4 Mapping Heterogeneous Environments 72

5.5 Texture: Classifying Surfaces 72

5.5.1 Reflections from Real Surfaces 73

5.5.2 Pathways Classification 75

5.5.3 Finding Suitable Features 76

5.5.4 Remarks 77

Chapter 6 Sonar Systems: A Biological Perspective 79

6.2 Echo Formation 81

6.2.1 Transformations 82

6.2.2 Reflection 84

6.2.2.1 Reflections from a Planar Reflector 84

6.2.2.2 Reflections from a Corner 85

6.2.2.3 Reflections from an Edge 86

6.3 Monaural Sensing 86

6.3.1 Inverting the Echo Formation Process 87

6.3.2 Extraction of Information: Cochlear Processing 87

6.4 Multi-Aural Sensing 88

6.4.1 Echo Amplitude and Echo Arrival Time: Two transmitters, Two receivers 89

6.4.1.1 Sensor Setup 89

6.4.1.2 Localisation of Planes and Corners 90

6.4.1.3 Recognition of Planes and Corners 91

6.4.2 Echo Arrival Time Information: Two Transmitters, Two Receivers 93

6.4.2.1 Sensor Setup 94

6.4.2.2 Localisation of Edges and Planes/Corners 94

6.4.2.3 Recognition of Edges, Planes and Corners 95

6.4.3 Echo Arrival Time Information: One Transmitter, Three Receivers 97

6.4.3.1 Sensor Setup 97

6.4.3.2 Localisation of Edges and Planes/Corners 98

6.4.3.3 Recognition of Edges, Planes and Corners 99

6.4.3.4 Localisation of Curved Reflectors 101

6.4.4 One Transmitter, Two Receivers: 3 Dimensional World Model 103

6.4.4.1 Sensor Setup 104

6.4.4.2 Localisation of a Point-Like Reflector in 3D 105

Chapter 7 Map Building from Range Data Using Mathematical Morphology 111

7.2 Basics of Sonar Sensing 114

7.3 Processing of the Sonar Data 115

7.3.1 Morphological Processing 117

7.3.2 Curve Fitting 119

7.3.3 Simulation Results 121

7.3.3.1 Linear Arrays 121

7.3.3.2 Circular Arrays 122

7.3.3.3 Arbitrarily-Distributed Sensors 122

7.4 Experimental Verification 125

7.4.1 System Description 125

7.4.2 Experimental Results 128

7.4.3 Computational Cost of the Method 133

Chapter 8 Millimetre Wave Radar for Robotics 137

8.2 When to Use Millimetre Wave Radar 138

8.3 Millimetre Wave Radar Principles 140

8.3.1 Range Resolution 140

8.3.2 Pulse Compression 141

8.3.3 Stepped Frequency 142

8.3.4 Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave 143

8.3.5 Angular Resolution and Antennas 146

8.3.6 Scanning and Imaging 148

8.3.6.1 Mechanical Scanning 148

8.3.6.2 Electronic Scanning 148

8.3.6.3 Image Representation 149

8.4 Review of Work Done in the Field 151

8.4.1 Indoor Applications 151

8.4.1.1 Technische Universitat Munchen 151

8.4.1.2 St. Petersburg State Technical University 153

8.4.2 Outdoor Applications 153

8.4.2.1 Robotics Institute: Carnegie Mellon University 153

8.4.2.2 Helsinki University of Technology 154

8.4.2.3 Australian Centre for Field Robotics: Sydney University 154

8.5 Airborne Radar Systems 156

8.5.1 Imaging Range and Resolution 156

8.5.2 Results 158

8.6 Waypoint Navigation Process 159

8.6.1 Navigation Error Estimation 161

8.6.2 Results 161

Chapter 9 Optoelectronic Range Sensors 165

9.2 Range-Finders 165

9.3 Radiometric Design 166

9.3.1 Specular Reflection 168

9.3.2 Diffuse Reflection 171

9.3.3 The Emitter and Detector 172

9.3.4 Optical Geometry 174

9.4 Ranging Sensors 177

9.4.1 Triangulation 177

9.4.2 Lidar 180

9.4.2.1 Pulsed Modulation 181

9.4.2.2 Amplitude Modulation Continuous Wave 182

9.4.2.3 Frequency Modulation Continuous Wave 184

9.5 Scanning Range-Finders 186

9.5.2 Scanning Methods 186

9.5.2.1 Holographic Scanners 187

9.5.2.2 Acousto-Optic Scanners 187

9.5.3 Some Scanning Sensors 188

9.5.3.1 The Sick Sensor: Pulsed Lidar 188

9.5.3.2 AMCW Lidar Sensors 188

9.5.3.3 FMCW Lidar 189

Chapter 10 AMCW Lidar Range Acquisition 193

10.2 Critical Lidar Design Factors 195

10.3 Performance Limits

Noise 197

10.4 AMCW Lidar Modules 198

10.5 Causes of, and Remedies for, Range Errors 200

10.5.1 Systematic Range Errors 200

10.5.2 Random Range Errors 204

10.5.3 Multiple Path Reflections 205

10.6 Correct Calibration Procedures 208

10.7 Possible Scanning Speed 212

10.8 3D Range/Amplitude Scanning

Results 217

Chapter 11 Extracting Lines and Curves from Optoelectronic Range Data 223

11.1 The Optoelectronic Sensors 224

11.1.1 The Triangulation (LEP) Sensor 224

11.1.2 The SICK Sensor 226

11.1.3 Perceptron Laser Scanner 226

11.2 Feature Extraction and Processing 227

11.2.1 Kalman Filter for Straight Line Extraction 228

11.2.1.1 Extended Kalman Filter Equations 229

11.2.1.2 Cartesian to Polar Co-ordinates 230

11.2.2 Initialisation Phase 231

11.2.3 Recursive Implementation 231

11.2.4 Feature Segmentation 232

11.2.5 Elliptical Sections 233

Chapter 12 Active Vision for Mobile Robot Navigation 239

12.1 Vision for Mobile Robots 239

12.1.1 Active Vision 240

12.1.2 Navigation Using Active Vision 241

12.1.3 A Robot Platform with Active Vision 242

12.2 Scene Features 244

12.2.1 Detecting Features 244

12.2.2 Searching for and Matching Features 247

12.2.3 Other Feature Types 249

12.3 Fixation 251

12.3.1 Acquiring Features 251

12.3.2 The Accuracy of Fixated Measurements 252

12.4 Localisation and Map-Building 254

12.4.1 An Extended Experiment 254

12.5 Continuous Feature Tracking 259

12.6 A Fixation Strategy for Localisation 261

12.6.1 Choosing from Known Features 262

12.6.2 Experiments 263

12.7 Steering Control and Context-Based Navigation 266

12.7.1 Steering a Twisting Course 266

Chapter 13 Strategies for Active Sensor Management 271

13.2 Simple Signal Processing Tools 275

13.3 Reconfigurable Sensors and Signal Processing Tools 278

13.4 A Sensor-Centred Image Segmentation Algorithm 282

13.5 Signal Processing Tool Selection Strategies 284

13.6 Dynamic Signal Processing Tool Scheduling 287.

Notes:

Includes bibliographical references (pages 291-305) and index.

ISBN:

9810246811

OCLC:

49514327