Theory and practice of infrared technology for nondestructive testing / Xavier P.V. Maldague.

Format:

Book

Author/Creator:

Maldague, Xavier, 1959-

Series:

Wiley series in microwave and optical engineering

Language:

English

Subjects (All):

Nondestructive testing.

Infrared technology.

Physical Description:

xix, 684 pages : illustrations ; 25 cm.

Place of Publication:

New York : Wiley, [2001]

Summary:

The book includes fundamental concepts of theory, instrumentation, and experimental practice as well as practical applications. An important chapter setting the book apart from other publications describes the properties of materials and presents case studies from industry. In addition, a program called IRNDT accompanies the book and is available on the Wiley ftp site. The program includes an image bank that can be used to test the principles covered in the book. * All chapters end with summaries, problems, and questions. * Authored by an acknowledged expert in the field. * Material draws on case studies to illustrate major points.

Contents:

1 Getting Started with Thermography for Nondestructive Testing 1

1.1 Passive Thermography Testing Procedure 1

1.2 Active Thermography Testing Procedures 2

1.2.1 Pulsed Thermography 2

1.2.2 Step Heating (Long Pulse) 3

1.2.3 Lock-in Thermography 3

1.2.4 Vibrothermography 3

1.3 TNDT Limitations and Applications 4

1.4 Historical Notes 4

2 Introduction to Thermal Emission 15

2.2 Blackbody 18

2.3 Solid Angle, Coordinate System, Emitted and Incident Radiation, and Units 18

2.4 Radiance, Exitance, and Irradiance 21

2.5 Planck's Law 24

2.6 Wien Displacement Law 26

2.7 Stefan-Boltzmann Law 27

2.8 Radiation Emitted in a Spectral Band 28

2.9 Reflection, Absorption, and Transmission 30

2.9.1 Emissivity 31

2.9.2 Absorption 34

2.9.3 Reflection 35

2.9.4 Transmission 36

2.9.5 Flux Exchanges and Kirchhoff's Law 36

3 Introduction to Heat Transfer 41

3.1.1 First Laws and Definitions 42

3.1.2 Thermal Conductivity 43

3.1.3 Conduction Heat Transfer 45

3.1.4 Radiation Heat Transfer 45

3.1.5 Convection Heat Transfer 47

3.1.6 Combined Heat Transfer Mechanisms 50

3.1.7 Electrical Analogy 51

3.2 One-Dimensional Heat Transfer 52

3.2.1 Conduction Heat Transfer in a Semi-infinite Slab with Fixed Conditions at Borders 54

3.2.2 Composite Systems 58

3.2.3 Radial Systems 64

3.2.4 Critical Radius 67

3.2.5 Internal Energy Sources 68

3.2.6 Fins and Biot Number 69

3.3 Unsteady Heat Transfer 72

3.3.1 Electrical Analogy 73

3.4 Multidimensional Conduction Heat Transfer 77

3.4.1 Analytical Approach 77

3.4.2 Finite-Difference Modeling 79

Appendix Solving Differential Equations Using the Laplace Transform 96

4 Infrared Sensors and Optic Fundamentals 99

4.1 Detector Definitions and Characteristics 99

4.1.1 Impedance and Responsivity 99

4.1.2 Time Constant 100

4.1.3 Noise Equivalent Power 101

4.1.4 Noise Equivalent Temperature Difference 101

4.1.5 Detectivity D and D 101

4.1.6 Minimum Resolvable Temperature Difference 102

4.1.7 Line Spread Function and Slit Response Function 102

4.1.8 Signal Degradation 105

4.2 Noise 105

4.2.1 Shot Noise 106

4.2.2 Thermal or Johnson Noise 107

4.2.3 Flicker or 1/f Noise 107

4.3 Thermal Detectors 107

4.3.1 Bolometers 108

4.3.2 Thermopiles 109

4.3.3 Pneumatic Detectors 110

4.3.4 Pyroelectric Detectors 110

4.3.5 Liquid Crystals 111

4.4 Photonic Detectors 112

4.4.1 Photoemissive Photonic Detectors 112

4.4.2 Quantum Detectors 113

4.5 Infrared Imaging Devices 114

4.5.1 Pyroelectric Detectors 114

4.5.2 Infrared Focal Plane Arrays 117

4.5.3 Scanning Radiometers 123

4.6 Cooling 124

4.7 Selection of an Atmospheric Band 127

4.8 Radiometric Measurements 128

4.8.1 Single-Color Pyrometry: Correction of the Vignetting Effect 133

4.8.2 Single-Color Pyrometry: Temperature Calibration 136

4.8.3 Two-Color Pyrometry: Temperature Calibration 137

4.9 Infrared Optics 141

4.9.1 Reflection 143

4.9.2 Refraction 145

4.9.3 Properties of Optical Materials 146

4.9.4 Materials in Infrared Optics 146

4.10 Optics Fundamentals 150

4.10.1 Mirrors 150

4.10.2 Thin Lenses 153

4.10.3 Aberrations 160

4.10.4 Filters 161

5 Images 167

5.2 Image Formation 175

5.2.1 Pinhole Camera Model and Perspective Projection 175

5.2.2 Orthographic and Parallel Projections 176

5.3 Data Acquisition and Recording 177

5.3.1 Photographic Film Recording 177

5.3.2 Videotape Recording 178

5.3.3 High-Performance Hard Disk Storage 180

5.3.4 Direct Digital Recording 180

5.4 Image Degradations 181

5.4.1 Noise (in Images) 185

5.4.2 Noise Evaluation 185

5.5 Image Rectification 186

5.5.1 Spatial Domain Image Enhancement 186

5.5.2 Detail Enhancement of Thermograms Using Local Statistics 192

5.5.3 Frequency-Domain Image Enhancement 193

5.5.4 Spatial and Temporal Reference Thermogram Enhancement Technique 193

5.5.5 Alternative Smoothing Routine for Noise Processing 196

5.6 Thermal Contrast Computations 198

5.7 Manual Interpretation of Color Scales and Profiles 201

5.7.1 Color Scales 201

5.7.2 Profiles 202

6 Automated Image Analysis 205

6.1.1 Defect Detection Algorithms 206

6.1.2 Validity of Defect Detection Procedures 206

6.2 Image Formation 207

6.3 Automatic Segmentation Algorithm 214

6.3.1 Part I: Defect Localization 214

6.3.2 Part II: Defect Edge Estimation 217

6.3.3 Results and Discussion 218

6.4 Lateral Scanning Defect Detection Algorithm 224

6.5 Neural Network Detection 227

6.5.1 Neural Network Fundamentals 227

6.5.2 Neural Network Design 228

6.5.3 Learning 231

6.5.4 Example of Neural Network Use 231

6.5.5 Remarks on Neural Networks 233

7 Materials 237

7.1 New Materials 237

7.2 Physical and Mechanical Properties of Materials 238

7.3 Industrial Materials 241

7.3.1 Iron-Based Alloys 241

7.3.2 Nonferrous Alloys 243

7.3.3 Plastics 246

7.3.4 Ceramics 248

7.3.5 Composite Materials 250

7.4 Materials Inspected by TNDT 251

7.4.1 Bonded Assemblies 252

7.4.2 Graphite-Epoxy Structures 253

7.4.3 Thin Coatings 255

7.5 Other NDE Techniques 255

7.6 Probability of Defect Detection, Reliability, and Inspection Programs 259

8 Experimental Concepts 265

8.1 Instrumentation for Passive and Active Infrared Thermography 265

8.1.1 Instrumentation for the Passive Approach 266

8.1.2 Instrumentation for the Active Approach 270

8.1.3 Measurement Reproducibility 293

8.1.4 Analysis for an Experimental Setup Configuration (Active Pulsed TNDT) 294

8.2 Solutions to Emissivity Problems 296

8.2.1 Blackpainting 300

8.2.2 Techniques Applied to Solve the Emissivity Problem 301

8.2.3 Multiwavelength Pyrometry 303

8.2.4 Thermal Transfer Imaging 304

8.3 Atmosphere 312

8.3.1 Simple Computation of Atmospheric Transmittance 315

8.4 Remote Sensing 329

8.4.1 Infrared (Thermal) Remote Sensing 331

8.4.2 Conditions for Thermal Surveys 334

8.4.3 Air Surveys 337

Part II Active Thermography

9 Active Thermography 343

9.1 Thermal Wave Theory 344

9.2 Pulsed Thermography 347

9.2.1 Pulsed Thermography Concepts 347

9.2.2 Deployment 349

9.3 Stepped Heating (Long Pulse) 352

9.4 Lock-in Thermography 355

9.5 Vibrothermography 362

10 Quantitative Data Analysis in Active Thermography 367

10.1 Pulsed Thermography: Inverse Problem 367

10.1.1 Practical Numerical Approach 367

10.1.2 Normalized Variables 374

10.1.3 Characterization of Defect Size 376

10.2 Pulsed Thermography: Experimental Procedure for Data Analysis 377

10.2.1 Thermal Contrast 377

10.2.2 Logarithmic Time Scale 379

10.2.3 Practical Computation of C(t), C[subscript max], t[subscript c_1/2max], t[subscript c_max], and t[subscript c_max1/2] 385

10.2.4 Defect Shape Extraction 389

10.2.5 Quantitative Characterization Procedure 398

10.3 Step Heating: Data Analysis 400

10.4 Pulsed Phase Thermography: Data Analysis 406

10.4.1 Principles and Features 406

10.4.2 Particular Features of PPT 411

10.4.3 Data Inversion 415

10.4.4 Statistical Method 417

10.4.5 Neural Network 423

10.4.6 Wavelets 424

10.4.7 Calibration for Lock-in Thermography 426

10.5 Thermal Tomography 428

10.6 Processing and Experiment for Nonplanar Surface Inspection 430

10.6.1 Thermal Stimulation Background (Curved Objects) 434

10.6.2 Point-Source Heating Correction 434

10.6.3 Video Thermal Stereo Vision 437

10.6.4 Direct Thermogram Correction 438

10.6.5 Shape from Heating 439

Part III Active and Passive Thermography: Case Studies

11 Applications 453

11.1 Active Pulsed Thermography with External Thermal Stimulation 453

11.1.1 Graphite-Epoxy Composites 454

11.1.2 Aluminum Laminates 459

11.1.3 Pulsed

Thermography of Space Launch Vehicles 468

11.1.4 Detection of Rolled-in Scale on Steel Sheets 472

11.2 Active Pulsed Thermography with Internal Thermal Stimulation 478

11.2.1 Cavitation Damage of Pipes 478

11.2.2 Inspection of Jet Turbine Blades 484

11.3 Lock-in Thermography and Pulsed Phase Thermography 495

11.4 Passive Thermography 496

11.4.1 Preventive Maintenance for Electrical Utilities 496

11.4.2 Passive Thermography for the Construction Industry 508

11.4.3 Temperature Measurement of Hot Steel Strip Mills 522

11.4.4 Temperature Measurement of Glass (Bottles and Lamps) 524

11.4.5 Thermal Inspection of High-Temperature Industrial Structures 525

11.5 Evaluation of Material Thermal Diffusivity 527

11.5.1 Classical Thermal Diffusivity Measurement Method 528

11.5.2 Diffusivity Measurement Method Based on the Laplace Transform 529

11.5.3 Diffusivity Measurement Method Based on Phase Measurement 531

Appendix A Computer Model 619

Appendix B Smoothing Routing 623

Appendix C Parabola Computations 627

Appendix D Higher-Order Gradient Computations Based on the Roberts Gradient 629

Appendix E Properties of Metals and Nonmetals 631

Appendix F Matlab M-Scripts Available 639.

Notes:

"A Wiley-Interscience publication."

Includes bibliographical references (pages 537-618) and index.

ISBN:

0471181900

OCLC:

44818446