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Copper-fundamental mechanisms for microelectronic applications / Shyam P. Murarka, Igor V. Verner, Ronald J. Gutmann.
LIBRA TK7871.85 .M87 2000
Available from offsite location
- Format:
- Book
- Author/Creator:
- Murarka, S. P.
- Language:
- English
- Subjects (All):
- Semiconductors--Materials.
- Semiconductors.
- Copper.
- Metallizing.
- Semiconductors--Junctions.
- Microelectronics.
- Physical Description:
- xxviii, 337 pages : illustrations ; 24 cm
- Place of Publication:
- New York : John Wiley, 2000.
- Summary:
- Copper-Fundamental Mechanisms for Microelectronic Applications also features extensive references, tables, and over 100 illustrations-including dual Damascene patterning necessary for copper interconnects. It is an excellent resource for anyone seeking to explore the current literature and gain insight into opportunities opening in the field.
- Contents:
- 1 Overview of IC Interconnects 1
- 1.2 Fundamental Interconnect Issues 6
- 1.2.1 RC Time Constant 6
- 1.2.2 Crosstalk 10
- 1.2.3 Power Dissipation 11
- 1.2.4 Inductance and Noise 11
- 1.2.5 Impact of Decreasing Metal Dimensions 13
- 1.2.6 Device Technology Demands 14
- 1.2.7 Reducing the RC Delay 18
- 1.3 Interconnect Material Requirements 19
- 1.3.1 Conductors 19
- 1.3.2 Dielectrics 20
- 2 Behavior of Copper Impurity Atoms 25
- 2.2 Copper Incorporation in Silicon 29
- 2.3 Diffusion Properties of Copper Impurity 35
- 2.3.1 General Considerations of Copper Diffusion and Solubility in Silicon 35
- 2.3.2 Amphoteric (Hybrid) Diffusion of Copper in Silicon 49
- 2.3.3 Diffusion and Solubility of Copper in Compound Semiconductors 54
- 2.4 Energy Levels and Recombination Processes 58
- 2.5 Copper-Related Energy Level Structures in Compound Semiconductors 66
- 3 Copper-Related Defects in Silicon 81
- 3.2 General Considerations of Precipitation 82
- 3.3 Two Groups of Fast-Diffusing 3d Elements 89
- 3.4 Effects of Copper and Oxygen Precipitation 95
- 3.5 Gettering of Copper in Silicon 99
- 3.5.1 General Remarks 99
- 3.5.2 External Gettering 101
- 3.5.3 Internal Gettering of Copper 104
- 3.6 Non-Equilibrium Kinetic Processes 110
- 3.7 Fractal Aspects of Copper Precipitation 115
- 4 Chemistry and Electrochemistry 125
- 4.2 Chemistry of Copper in Gaseous Ambient 128
- 4.3 Chemistry of Copper in Aqueous Media 131
- 4.4 Changes Induced by the Impurities in Copper 135
- 4.5 Electrochemistry of Copper and Copper Alloys 137
- 4.5.1 Pourbaix Diagrams 138
- 4.5.2 Impurities in Metal 142
- 4.6 Chemical Stability of Copper 144
- 5 Copper in Inorganic Dielectrics 149
- 5.2 Dielectric Properties Affected 150
- 5.3 Adhesion of Copper to Inorganic Dielectrics 155
- 5.4 Diffusion of Copper in SiO[subscript 2] Dielectrics 157
- 5.4.1 Diffusion in SiO[subscript 2] under Electrical Bias 157
- 5.4.2 Thermal Diffusion 165
- 5.4.3 Diffusion Mechanisms 168
- 5.5 Diffusion of Copper 170
- 5.6 Passivation and Encapsulation 171
- 6 Copper in Organic Dielectrics (Polymers) 175
- 6.2 Structure and Properties of Polymers 176
- 6.2.1 Representative Polymers for ILD Applications 177
- 6.2.2 Theories of Diffusion in Polymers 181
- 6.3 Diffusion of Copper in Polymers 183
- 6.3.1 Effects on the Electrical Properties of Polymer ILDs 190
- 6.4 Copper/Polymer Interface and Adhesion 191
- 7 Diffusion and Compound Formation 205
- 7.2 Diffusion Phenomenon 206
- 7.2.1 Mechanisms 207
- 7.2.2 Diffusion in Thin Films 209
- 7.3 Reactions in Thin Metallic Systems 210
- 7.4 Examples of Interactions 215
- 7.5 Interactions of Copper with Silicides 224
- 8 Layered Structures Containing Copper 231
- 8.2 Adhesion 232
- 8.3 Interdiffusion across the Film-Substrate Interface 234
- 8.4 Alloying Copper 235
- 8.5 Diffusion Barrier/Adhesion Promoter (DBAP) 238
- 8.5.1 Dielectric Barriers 244
- 8.5.2 Characterization of DBAP Material Effectiveness 244
- 8.6 Determining and Optimizing Copper's Properties 245
- 8.6.1 Sacrificial Elemental or Alloy Layers between Pure Copper and ILD 253
- 8.7 Intermetallic Formation in Copper-Added Impurity Systems 254
- 8.8 Grain Growth and Microstructure 255
- 8.9 Processing of Copper Alloys 258
- 9 Copper for IC Metallization 265
- 9.2 Dual-Damascene Patterning 265
- 9.2.1 Concepts 266
- 9.2.2 Historical Development 267
- 9.2.3 Dual-Damascene Patterning 272
- 9.2.4 Optimal Dual-Damascene Criteria 283
- 9.3 Copper as the Contact Metal in ICs and Discrete Devices 288
- 9.4 Reliability of Copper Interconnects 291
- 9.5 Deposition of Copper and Barrier Layers 295
- 9.5.1 Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) 295
- 9.5.2 Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) 296
- 9.5.3 Electrochemical Deposition (ECD) 300
- 9.6 Integrated Process Technology for Copper ICs 302
- 10 Future Directions in Copper Technology 313
- 10.2 Silicon IC BEOL Technology Trends 314
- 10.3 Synergistic Silicon IC Front-End Technology 317
- 10.4 NTRS-Based Timetable Projections 319
- 10.4.1 Interconnect 319
- 10.4.2 Design and Test 320
- 10.5 The Interconnect Future 321
- Appendix A Tabulated Properties of Copper 325.
- Notes:
- Includes bibliographical references and index.
- ISBN:
- 0471252565
- OCLC:
- 42296592
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